I
Ju1·nal
Sekolah Pascasatjana
Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah
Jakarta
.Jurnal
INDO·ISLAMIKA
Yolunw II.
'iomor
I.
:!l)l·l.1\
i>J:)
ISSN: .2088-9445
DEWAN REDAKSI Azyumardi Azra Komaruddin Hidayat Mark Cammack
M. Atho Mudzhar Phillip Buckley
PENYUNTING Fu ad Jabali Suwito Yusuf Rahman
(Profesor Sejarah UIN Jakarta) (Profesor Filsafat U IN Jakarta)
(Profesor Hukum Southwestern Law School Los Angeles, California)
(Profesor Hukum Islam U!N Jakarta) (Profesor Filsafat McGill University, Canada)
PIMPINAN REDAKSI Eu is Nurlaelawati
TATA LETAK M. Adam Hesa
SEKRETARIS Haula Noor Windy Triana
Jurnal INDO-ISLAMIKA adalah Jurnal Islam Indonesia yang diterbitkan dua
kali ctalam setahun (Januarl-Juni dan Jul1-Desember) oleh Sekolah Pascasarjana UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. Secara spesifik, jurnal ini memuat tulisan
tentang kajian multidisiplin !slam Indonesia dalam perspektif para sarjana,
ilmuwan, dan cendek"1awan. Alamat Redaksi: Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas
Islam Negeri (UIN) Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. JI. Kertamukti No. 5 Pisangan
Barat Cirendeu, Ciputat 15419 Indonesia. Telp. (+62-21) 740 1472, 74709260,
fax. (+62-21) 74700919. Email: [email protected]. Website:
http://graduate.uinjkt.ac.i d
ldentitas Jurnal:
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10. Jumlah hal_an1,an
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4 him. Jumlah ha,_!arTianｩｾｩＬＺＧＱＱＵＲＺＧＭ
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Jurnal
INDO-ISLAMIKA
Yo\unw 11.
;io1110r \.
:!lll:2/I j.:)B
ISSN: 2088-944 5
Daftar lsi
Artike!:
Religious Celebrity; The Metamorphosis of Islamic Preachers in Indonesia lim Ha!imatusa'diyah ... 1-16
Wakaf Uang dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Program Pengentasan Kemiskinan di
Indonesia
M. Nur Rianto Al Arif ... . 17-29
Which and Whose Shari'a?: Historical and Political Perspectives on Legal Articulation of Islam in Indonesia
Arska! Salim ... . ··· ··· .... 31·44
Simbol Keislaman pada Tradisi "Roket Tase" dalam Komunikasi pada Masyarakat Desa Nepa, Banyuates-Sampang Madura
Wahyu llaihi dan Siti Aisah ... 45-58
"Sacrifice" Among Ahmadi Women
WinyTrianita ... 59-73
Menuju Kesetaraan dalam Aturan Kewarisan Islam Indonesia: Kedudukan
Anak Perempuan versus Saudara Kandung
Eu is N urlaelawati ... 75-90
Tantangan Studi Hukum Islam di Indonesia Dewasa lni
M. Atho Mudzhar ... 91-103
Political Aspects of Shari'a Banking law in Indonesia
Which and Whose
Shari'a?:
Historical and Political Perspectives on Legal Articulation
of Islam in Indonesia
Arskal Sali111
Senior Research Lecturer, University \Vestern Sydney (U\VS), Australia [email protected]
Abstrak
Upaya penerapan syariah di Indonesia tidak lepas dari adanya pertentangan antara aspirasi politik dari para pendukung dan penentang dan dari adanya
resistensi ·dari negara yang sekuler. Tensi ini telah 111elahirkan perbedaan
politik hukum yang sang.at serius terkait penerapan hukum Islam secara formal di negara ini. Pcrdcbatan atau perbedaan yang terus menerus tentang n1akna
at au 1naksud dari kata syariah it u sendiri dan istilahnya menyebabkan
munculnya penlebatan tentang syariah yang tnana. pena!Siran dan pandangan siapa tcntung syariah yang akan diterapkrn1.
1\rtikd ini n1enelisik akar dan su1nbcr dari pcrdcbatan dan perhedaan pandangan tentang politik hukun1 penerapan syariah. A.rtikcl ini n1enganalisa faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan artikulasi dan ungkapan tentang penerapan syariah sccara nyata berbcda. Artikel ini 111encgasknn baln\'a perbedaan yang paling nyata dapat secara jclas tcrlihat dalam ha! aspirasi masyarakat Muslim atas penerapan hukum Islam secara formal dan perlindungan hak-hak konstitutional kebebasan beragarna. Menampilkan argumen balnva meskipun penerapan syariah telah terlihat dalan1 beberapa bidang hukum yang diterapkan di Indonesia dan pemerintah telnh n1engupayakan syariah terkorporasi ke dalam siste1n hukun1 baik secan1 nasional n1aupun lokal. pe1nerintah 111asih 1ndakukan kontrol dan pen1bntasan dan .syariah ald1in1ya 1nasih saja secaru ketut dibatusi pcmbcr!ukuaru1va.
Abstract
Attempts at the implementation of sbmi'a in Indonesia have ahvays been
niarked by a tension between political aspirations of the proponents and the
opponents of shari'a and by resistance from the secular state. The tension had
ｾ･､＠ to the profound and ongoing legal political dissonance in the formal
aPPlic'ation of shari'a rules in the country. A continuum bet\veen conflicts in
m'eanings and direct contradictions in terms has resulted in a debate of \Vhich
arid "\\·hose sf1ari'a to be ilnple1nented.
Arska!Solim (31-44)
This paper looks at the roots as \Veil as the sources of those dissonances. It observes a number of conditions that make the ar!iculation of religious la\v dissonant. It argues that more direct dissonance is discernible bet\veen the
aspiration for the fonnal implementation of shari'a and constitutional rights of
religious freedom. Arguing that despite shari'a has been able to seep into
scattered legal aspects within Indonesian state and society and that the state
has al\o\ved :,i1ari'a to be incorporated in many \vays into its legal system,
nationally and regionally, it concludes that the state continues to control and
restrict this dispersion and that sbilli'a remains tightly confined in Indonesia
Keywords: silari'a, state, Indonesia, Islamization, legalization
Introduction
One of n1y previous \Vorks focused on the interaction bct\veen sh::1ri'a and
st ate la\\·5 of conten1pora1y lndoncsia.1 I argued therein that ··ancn1pts at the
in1plen1entation of shari"a in Indonesia have al\vays been marked by a tension
benveen political aspirations of the proponents and the opponents of s./Jmi·a
and bv resistance fron1 the secular state··. ｾ Ｑｉｹ＠ prognosis \\'as that this tension
had l;d to the profound and ongoing legal political
､ｩｳｳｯｮ｡ｮ｣･ｾ＠
in the formalapplication of shari ·a rules in the country. It is discordant in the sense that it
has been characterized by a continuum between conflicts in n1canings and
direct contradictions in tenns. I have identified this conf1icting articulation of
Isla111ic law in Indonesia via three then1es: (1) the ·constitutionalization· of
silari·a, (2) the 'nationalization' of shari'a:, and (3) the 'localization' of sfJari'a
in Aceh.
The first theme \Vas about efforts to give shari'a a constitutional status.
These efforts to constilutionalize sl1ari'a in Indonesia appeared four times since
the curly days of independence. Firstly. so1ne I'vluslin1 leado.!rs (in June-August
J 9..J.5l struggled to introduce the \Ye!l-kt10\Yl1 phrase contained in the ··Jakarta
Charier .. (i.e. seven \Vords: de11g.7n ken·ajiba11 ＱＱＱｲＺＱｾｩ｡ｬ｡ＱｊＯＮＺ｡ＱＱ＠ s.variat lsi:u11 bagi
pe111e/uk11ya - 0
"\vith the obligation of carrying OU! Islamic sJ1,1ri·a for the
J\'luslin1s .. } into the 1945 Constil ution. Secondly. the sa1nc request aro::;e during
debates over the ideology of the state during the sessions of the Constituent Assembly in 1957-1959. Thirdly, a similar aspiration re-emerged in the MPRS
1Arskal Salim. Challcn!!ine. tl1c Scculilf State: The /s/amizJtion of L1111'.-; in !ndone . .;ia
(Honolulu: Hawaii Univcn;ity
Prc;s.
200!().:: \Vhat I mean here by the term ·dhsonancc' is a spectrum between mild tension in meanings on the one hand am.I a direct ｣ｯｮｴｲｾ＼ｬｩ｣ｴｩｯｮ＠ in tcrnh on the other hand. It bcconn::. an umbrdl<1 tcnn to CO\Cr a \am:c ran!!e of mc;mings such as ·inconsistency: "incongruity: ·ambi\a\cncc: ·ambiguity.· ·co;fiict.· -=contrm.liction.· 0
<lh;:ign:-cmcn1.· Ｂｴ｣ｮｾｩｯｮＮ＠ ·and ﾷｪｮ｡ｰｰｲｯｰｲｩ［Ｑｴ｣ｮ｣ｳｾ＠ ·
32
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INDO[Sl.AMIKA. v,1Jumt.>JL Nomorl, 2012/J.1;>3Which and Whose ShorFa?:
Historical ond Political Perspectives on Legal Articulation of Islam in Indonesia
(Majelis Pem1usya\varatan Rakyat Sementara or Provisional People's
Consultative Assc1nbly) sessions in 1966-1968. And lastly. it \Vas den1anded
once again in the 2000-2002 Annual Sessions of 11PR (People's Consultative
Assembly). All these atten1pts. ho\vever, ended in failure and s/Ja1i'a remains
lacking a constitutional status.
The second theme demonstrated the extent to \Vhich the state has
acconunodated sliari'a by incorporating its rules into the national la\v. Since
1970s, the Ne\v Order regime started allo\ving, albeit limited, some principles
of Islamic n1arriage la\\' to be accommodated as national la\v. A step foiward
for national legal Islarnlzation \vas the enactment ofLa\v number 7/J 989 on the
Religious Court, \Vhich exclusively single out Muslim citizens. This La\v opened the gate for further legislations not based on citizenship in general but on religious adherence in particular. The pron1ulgation of three statutes
exclusiYely for !vlusli1ns (La\\' no. 1711999 on the Nlanagement of
Jia.f.i
La\V no.38'1999 on the ｾﾷＱ｡ｮ｡ｧ･Ｑｮ｣ｮｴ＠ of Zakat (Islan1ic Aln1s) and La\Y no. 41/2004 on
H'aka[or Endo\Vn1ent) \Vas possible partly because a precedent already exerted. The third then1e discussed ho\v the state began granting degrees of autonomy to particular religious co1nnn1nities or. regions to locally imple1nenl
religious la\,. in a li1nited tetTitory. This legal Islmnization throu!!h the
enac1n1cn1 of Regional Regulations (kito\vn as Qanun in 1\ceh) ｢･｣ｯＱｮ･ｳｾ＠ a ne\\.
stnuegy of the proponents of s/Jmi'a in Indonesia. since the constitutional
cfTor1s have failed and that national legislation to apply s/Jari·a has only
achieved a lirnitcd success.
Unlike my \VOrk above that explored legal and political dissonances that occur in the atte111pts at Islan1ization of Indonesian leg<il system, this paper \vould like to look at the roots as well as the sources of those incongruities. The dissonances can be traced back to the fact that the character of religious Ja\v in the hislory has changed O\·er the centuries and that the notion of the n1odern
stale DO\\" is fund<1n1entally ､ｩｈｾｲ･ｮｴ＠ fron1 the understanding of the role of the
state at the ti1ne religious la\\. initially developed in 1he prc-n1odern period. This particular issue \\·as no! dealt \Vith properly in 1ny \vork above. This paper
ｴｨ｣ｲＱ［ｾＱｬＩｮＮＮＧ＠ \\·ou!d like It' p1·esen! \\"hat are conditions that 111akc the articulation of religious la\v inharmonious with the concept of nation-state. To this end, I will not only discuss legal articulation of Islam during constitutional debates in the history of modem Indonesia, but also examine various views presented
concerning the question of \\'hich s/Jari'a and \\'hose s/Ja1i·a is to be
Arskal Salim {3144)
Shari'a:.
which one you are talking about?In the vie\V of tviuha1nn1ad Sa'id al-Ashn1a\\'i, an Egyptian jurist scholar.
there \Vas a n1ajor shift in the n1eaning of sbari 'a in the history of Islarn over
the centuries. He stated that the original broad meaning of silmi·a, v-.rhich
included principal values, codes, institutions, practices and legal rules, has been
narrowed do\vn and restricted to denote only fixed legal rules.3
Ashrnawi views evolution of the n1eaning of sf1ari'a took place in four
phases. First, the original meaning of shari,a in the Arabic language in the
Qur'an, "refers not to legal rules but rather to the path ofisla111 consisting of
three strean1s (I) \Vorship. (2) ethical code. and (3) social intercourse". This
proper 1neaning of :,i1aii·a \vas initially applied by the first generation of
Muslin1s. Second. over time the meaning of sbari'a extended to also refer to the
legal rules found in the Qur·an. Third, after some tin1e. despite the n1eaning of
sba11··a \Vas seemingly expanded. it \Vas actually na1TO\\·ed do\vn by incorporating n1ore legal rules. both in the Qur·an and in the Prophetic
traditions. Finally. the concept of shaii·a came to include the \\"hole body of
legal rules de\·doped in Islamic history. \\'ith all varying interpretations and opinions of the legal scholars,
These four phases indicate that the \Vay the tern1 sluui·a is applied today
is not the \Vay the \\'Ord was u<;ed in the Qur·an, and no longer corresponds to
its original n1eaning in the .A.rabic ｬ｡ｮｧｵ｡ｧ･Ｎｾ＠ As a result. the concept of shari 'a
consisted of both its principal values and its legal subject maller. and it is. in fact. this latter portion \Vhich has become ,,·idcspread through the J..1uslin1
countries. It is no wonder then that this understanding of sharj ·a as meaning
'legal rules· has inc\·itably had an impact on the current gro\Ving political
demand for the implementation of shari 'a in many countries including
Indonesia.
The no1ion 0f sluJJi't1 in Indonesia is highly contcs1ed. The n1caning of
ｳｬＱ｡ＱｆｾＬＬ＠ in the 111ode111 history of Indonesia stretches broadly depending on ,,·ho
inlerprcts and obsen·es iL how ii is being stipulated. \\'hat kind of con1ext it
engages "\Yi th. and \\'hen and \Vhere it is enforced. Despite there arc t\\·o general
concepts of sh:ui·:1. as principal Yalues as \\'ell as legal rules. it appears. !hat thl.'
definition of silarj·a as legal subject-matter gains more support among the
proponents of the formal application of shari'a in present-day Indonesia.
1Mulnunmatl $_ ａｾｨｭ｡｜｜ｩＮ＠ Ag:uil.'it J . .;/a111ic ｅｩＺｴｲｩＮﾷＱＱＱｩＮｾﾷｮｩＬ＠ ｴｲ｡ｮｾＮ＠ and cJ_ C Flud1r-Lobban
( Florhla: Uni\cr.-ity ｐｲ･ｾｾ＠ ofF\oritla. 199!-:).
ＴａｾｨＱＱＱ｡ｷｩＮ＠ ＮﾷｬｾﾷｎｩｮＮＬﾷｲ＠ 1-/umic. 97-9K
34
!
1NoO-ISLAMIKA. \\1Jum<" IL Nomor l, 201:!/1..i33Which and Whose Shori"o?: Historical and Political Perspectives on legal Articulation of Islam in Indonesia
Despite it is not easy to identify exactly to \\'hat extent can a rule or law
be included under the tenn shmi'a. there are al least l\vo \Vays for identifying
or classifying a rule as pan of it.
Firstly, follo\ving Ibn Qayyin1 al-Ja\vziyya (d. 1373), the deterrninino
factor that distinguish sl1an· 'a fi1)Ill others is the notion of ;ustice
｣ｯｮｴ｡ｩｮ･ｾ＠
therein. As Ibn Qayyim assened, "Fa Jn r-ahar.1t anm1t11a al-adl H'a asfara
tFajhuhu biayyj /ar]qjn kiina. fa tbanm1a sharulliih wa dl11uh ... Fa ＧｾＱｙｊＧｬｬ＠ .tariq1i1 istakhraja bih.ii al-ad} tva al-q1SI JaJJjya min al-din '"[If the indications of justice
or its expressions are evident through any means, then the shari'a of God
{Islam) must be there .... Any means that can produce justice and fairness is
certainly part of the religion].5
The second criterion is Jegitin1alion, that is, by \Vay of making a valid
reference to the shari ·a or at least taking inspiration fron1 it. This n1cans that a
legal code is identified as sha1i'a via so-called 'incorporation by \'alid
reference·. The reason behind this is that everything in this \vorld is not
necessarily divine and hence to deny the existence of secular nianers is in1practical. Thus non-religious aspects n1ight be religiously justified if there is
legitimation or a Yalid reference is inadc 10 Oh.e sources 01) sh;ui·a."
\\'i1h these criteria in inind. one can argue that sba1i"a is not necessarih·
1nanifes1 in a textual legal fonn_ hut it is being found inore in the
ｳｵ｢ｳｴ｡ｮｴｩｶｾ＠
content of a legal rule. One cxa111ple of this is dcri\'ed from the secular stipulations in the ivlarriage La\V of many Musli1n countries. According to
classical jurisprudence of Islan1ic marriage. a husband can divorce his
ｾＧｩｦ･＠
\Vherever and \\'hcnever he \Vishes. But, the Indonesian Marriage La"\v stipulation, for an instance. states that a divorce in order to be valid and
la\vfully enforceable must be examined and executed only before the court. 7
.!\!though this is not in line \Vith the classical flq/J jurisprudence. this
stipulation is religiously acceptable. as its objectiYe is to prevent the o\·erJ\·
fi:equent occmTcnces of dh·orce. In facL this stipulation \\'as closer to
ｴｨｾ＠
implied n1eaning of the ha(/jffi: .4bghac;f ul-{1aliili ifa-fliihi al-f aliiq [of pern1ittecl
matters the 1nos1 loathso111e before Allah is ､ｩｶｯｲ｣･｝Ｎｾ＠ Fron1 this exan1plc_ it can
he argued that such a secular stipulation (that is. di\"01-cc is considered \"alid
l--f.
｟ｩｬｾｮ＠
ｑ｡ｹｹｩｾ＠
｡ｬＭｊｭ｜Ｚｺｩｾｹ｡Ｎ＠
:J!-Turuq｡ＯＭｾｩｵｫｭｻｶ｟ｶ｡ｨ＠
Ii :J!-Siyisa a/-Sharlyyah aw al-Fir:lsat :II·' ·El'r.h_v;ah fi AfJJ.:am uf·S1_i·Hsa al-Shar·i)'..n1h (Bayrut: Dar al·Kutub a!-Ilmiyyah. 1995). J J.
. ,- "See_
Knut S.ｖｾｫｯｲＮ＠
··The S/wri';i and the Nation State: Who Can Codify the Di\·ine Law?.''Ｑｾ＠ ｔｾ｣＠ ｦｯｨｾ､Ａ｣＠ E11st Jn A Globalizcd iVorltl. ed. Bjorn Ola\· Utvik anti Knut S. Vikor (Ber!!:en:
Non.he. Soc1c1y for Middle Eastern Studies. 2000). 232.
-ｾｓ･｣＠ Article: 39 of the Lm no. I 1974 on lvlarriagc,
·-. s:c l'Vluhamma<l ibn Ya7.id ibn l'vh!_jah. ｾｵｻＱｊＯＮＱ＠ Sun:m ib11 1\Jujuh (al-Riva<l: J\-lakwbat ｡ｬｾ＠ Ma ｡ｮｦｨｬＭｎ｡ｾｲ＠ \\a-al-Tawzi. 1417 [1997)J. Chapter on Dhorc0. ｾＱｩＱ､ｬｴｨｮｯＮ＠ Ｚ＿Ｎｏｏｘｾ＠
Arskal Salim (31-44)
only before the court) should be seen as s/u:ui 'a, since it substantially refers to
the source of s/Ja1i ·a, na1nely badi!lz.
Shari'u:. whose understanding to be accepted?
There is no a comprehensive record as to the \Vay sbari'a \Vas understood
and practiced for the 11rst tin1e in earlier history of Indonesia. As the Islamization of Indonesia \Vas an evolutionmy process beginning from as early
as the second half of the tenth centuiy,9 the establislunent of sbari'a, in its
variety of meanings and fonns, took place gradually. It is probable that s/Jari'a
in Indonesia was initially present in Muslim practical lives. These include a number of social aspects and rituals from dietary meals to family matters.w Yet, it must be immediately noted that gambling. alcohol consun1ption and
other pre-Isla1nic local practices remained noticeable.11
The institutionalization of sf1ari·av:ithin legal and political structures of
seYeral 11usli111 kingdoms in di!Terent regions of Indonesia began only by the
Seventeenth century. For an exa1nple. as noted by Reid, amputations as the
punishn1ent for thieves \\·ere enforced by the .A.cch kingdon1 of the Seventeenth
century.12 According 10 Peletz. although this kind of punishment \\'as
considered Islan1ic in nature. it \Vas ··not representatiYe of lndonesia. Malaysia.
or Southeast Asia as a \\·hole belOre. d1n·ing. or after that cent my··. 13
Despite certain aspects of sbari'a have been Yoluntarily practiced \Vithin
Muslin1 con1n1unities of Indonesia. the cnforccn1ent of sbari'a rules or the
foundation of its legal instilution a\\vays rely on the goverrunent eJTons. The
process of legal institutionalization \Vas therefore dependent very much on the
extent to \Vhich a ruler has a good understanding of s/Jari'a. Sultan Agung (d.
1645) of the Mataram sultanate, for instance, \Vas considered more pious than his successor. Susuhunan Amangkurat {d. 1677). \Vhen the latter came to po\\·cr replacing the forn1er. he did the oppL1site to \\·hat had been established
by his predecessor. An1angkurat restored the Pradata court. a I·Iindu Ivlajapahit
court that had existed in ]a\·a prior to the coining of lslani. and abolished the Suran1bi court. a court that \Vas founded in accordance \\'ith Islamic tradition
1 Azymnardi Azra. l•;lilill in the fnrfoncsian IVorld: An Account of lnstirurional Fonnilfion
(Bandung: Mizan. 2006), 1-25; cf. Merle Ricklefs. H1'.ffol)' of Afodcm Indonesia s1i1cc c. 1200
(Stanford California: Stanford Unh•crsicy Press, 2001 ).
ioAnchony Reid. ｓｯＱＱｬｨ｣［ＱＮｾﾷｴ＠ ａＮｾＱ｡＠ in the A_;'L' of Conmu:rcc 14S0-161i'O. Vol 1: The Lands
Belon· rhc \Vincf.,· (New Ha\"cn: Yale Uni\·crsity Press. 19X8l: Arskal Salim. ·'Pcrkcmbangan Awai
Hukum Jslam di ｎｵｾ｡ｮｴ｡ｲ｡＠ (Early Dc\·clopmcnt of Islamic Law in the Archipelago):· Junwl
Rc:.pubfica 5.2 (2005): 60-73.
11 Arskal Salim. "Pcrkcmbamrnn Awai"'. 63. Ｑｾａｮｴｨｯｮｶ＠ Reid. ｓ･＾ｵｲｨｾｾ［ＮＱＮ［ｴ＠ .1sh. 143
Ｑｾｨｬｩ･｢｡｣ｩ＠ G. Pcktz. lo;h1nic 1\Jorl<·nr Rcli,O!io11 . .; Court.' i!nd Cul11m1/ ｐｯｬｩｴｩ｣ｾ＠ in 1\lal:i.1·:•'i:1
(Princeton: Princeton Unh·ersity Pre.-;_,. 2002). !6-17.
36
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lNDOISLAMIKA, Vol um<:! JI, N0mor1. :01:/1.J;\3Which and Whose Shari'a?: Historical and Political Perspectives on Legal Articulation of ls lam in Indonesia
by Sultan Agung.1-4 Like\vise, the establislunent of the religious court systen1 in
Java by the Dutch g0Ye1nment for the first tin1c in 1882 \Vas verv n1uch due to
colonial interests and their tmderstanding of la\v in Islam
ｲ｡ｴｨｾｲ＠
than. for aninstance, the piety of Indonesian Muslims. In spite of this, such legal initiative
\Vas seen as a foundational stone for the n1odem structure of Islan1ic court in
Indonesia.15
As pointed out by Judith Tucker, s/Jari'a is not only a n1atter of legal
doctrine. It is also a body of substantive la\V that took institutional fonn under
a series of ｳｯ｣ｩｯｾｰｯｬｩｴｩ｣｡ｬ＠ events throughout much of its history. 16 Shari'a as
articulated in Indonesia today can be seen as an upshot of a long struggle
bct\veen different actors and agencies, including state functionaries, politicians, legal professionals and religious scholars.
As early as the first half of the t\ventieth century, discussions
on
\Vhichs/Ja1i"a and \Vhose sb<1ri·a \Vas to be enforced in Indonesia have e1ner2ed. The
polcn1ic bel\veen Natsir and Soeka1110 in early 1940s articulated the di!Terent
YiC\\'S on this controversial topic. On the one hand. it \Vas contended that
shari ·a in Indonesia v.:ou!d create a sense of discrimination. particularly arnong · non-i\:luslin1.s. Additionally. it \Vas consic!t:red in1proper in a n1odern
nation-statc to enact a national la\\' by looking only at one source of religion lo apply
o\·er \'arious people \\"ith diH'erent backgrounds. On the other hand. it \\"as
argued that the implementation of sl1ari·a in Indonesia \\'ould not spoil or
endanger other religions or religious groups. In fact. a refusal to implement
lslan1ic la\V in Indonesia based on the reason that it \\'ould hurt non-Muslinis feelings, it \Vas said, \vould tyrannize Indonesian Muslims \Vhose population don1ina1cs the country. and \vould thus violaie the rights and the intcres1s of
the n1ajority.17
\Vhen Indonesia's independence \Vas about to be proclain1ed in 1945.
conlcnding parties agreed to n1ake a con1pron1isc so as to allo\\" sh;ui'a to be
inserted in the fonnulation of the Pancasila (as part of the prcainble of the 19-1-5
Constitution). This co1npron1ise \\·as \\·ell k.nO\\"ll later as the ·Jakarta Charter·.
\\·hich includes "the seven \Vords· dc11ga11J.:eH'E!_ti"ban1ncnjalm1kan svaiiat L<tlan1
bagi Jh'1JJL'flfk·pc111cluk11)·a ["·i1h th.: obligation to obsc1Ye lsi<:uni; s/J:11i·,1 for the Muslims]. 1-Io,vever, this compromise was vague since there \Vas no clarity
Ｚ［ｾｉｭＮ＠
Ball.ｉｮ､ｾＱＱ｣＠
. .;i:m Legal fJi:,·toryＱＶＰＲｾＱＯｬＧＮＯｓＨｓｹ､ｮ･ｹＺ＠
Ou,ghiersbaw Press. 1982). 68. . uh.1mmad H1syam. C;111g/u Ber ween Tbrec Fire.,·: Tiu: ｊ｡ｮＱｮ｣ｾ･＠ Pamni/u under the DutchｃｯｾｾｾＱ｡ｬ｟ａ､ｭ｟ｩｭＺｷｲ｡ｴｩｯｮ＠
1882-19-12 (Jakarta: JNIS. 200!); Mark Cammack. ·'Indonesia's 1989Ｈ
ｒ
Ｑ
ﾰ
Ｙ
ＱＹ
ＱｾＮＱｯｵｳ＠
Judicature Act: lslamization of Indonesia or lndonesianization of Islam·)" Jndonc.,'ia 637):143-168. . ' .
1
''Judith Tucker. J!'r.111cn. "· F:1,,,,.,,. ,.,,,,/
r,.,,
v,',.,
,·n /,·/·,,,,,·,£.,,,
]C"mb ·.• C b ··•11, • • , .. nugc: am nu.!!C
L"nhcr,ity ｐｲ･ｾｾＮ＠ ＲＰＰｾＩＮ＠ 15. · -
-1
-Arskal Salim. C!mllcngJiJg the Secul:u: 55.
Arska! Salim (31-44)
about \\•hat the ·seven \Vords· \\'Ould actually n1ean in practice. The co1npron1isc \\'as therefore interpreted differently according to the interests of the respective parties. For one group. the co1npromise n1eant that the
government had to actively put sl1ari'ainto practice. For the other group, the
practice of Islamic sl1aii'a was a duty of Muslin1s, not the state. The
in1plication of this fonnula and its precise interpretation in Indonesian legal realms has been controversial since tl1en.
For decades, the Jakarta Charter \Vas not considered part of the 1945 ｃｯｮｳｴｩｴｵｴｩｯｮｾ＠ regardless of ho\V the Islamic parties vie\ved it. Despite there
being a nlll11ber of contending interpretations.1
i the standpoint of the
government that the Jakarta Charter \Vas not part of the 1945 Constitution \Vas widely accepted. Many of Muslim leaders ha\'e accepted the Presidential
Decree issued by Soekamo on 5 July 1959 that acknO\\·ledged the position of
the Jakarta Charter
as
being 'inspirational" and be ·Jinked· to the 1945Constitution. I-lo\\'evcr. \\·hether this should haYe gi\·en sb:11i':1 legal force and
designated the state as being respo11sible for its implen1entation ren1ains unclear. According Roeslan Abdul Gani. a forn1er aide to Indonesia's !lrst president Soekamo and a key player at the fom1ulation of the Presidential
Decree. the \\'Ord ·rangkaia1i (!inked) should be inserted in the decree. This
word. according to him. signified that the Jakarta Charter is not autoinatically
integrated ''"ith the tex.t of the Constitution.1'1 Gi\'en this. during the discussion
of the amendinent of Article 29 in the MPR Annual Sessions (2000. 2001 and
2002), although Islamic parties took the vic\v that the preamble to the
Constitution was inspired by the Jakarta Charter, as the Presidential Decree of
1959 put it, other parties did not share this opinion. In fact. these non-Islan1ic
parties considered it a historical document that n1ight function as a formula for
political con1promise. rather than as a forn1al accon1n1odation of s/J:ui·a.
Shari'u. which interpretation to be applied?
In the eyes of lsla1nic parties. a constitutional st at us for l:slan1ic slu11i ·ll is
necessary. since only then could s/Jari ·a be olTicially imple1nented in Indonesia.
Ho\\.e\·er. lslatnic parties \\'ere not able to agree on \\'hat kind of sJi,11i·a they
\Vould give a constitu1ional ｬ･ｧｩｴｩｮＱ｡｣ｹＮｾＢ＠ This appeared fro1n the running
nscc Endang Saefu<ldin Anshari. Piagam J;tkarta 22 Juni /94S (Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 1997). 129-143: Yusri! lhza Muhcndra. •'Dckrit Presidcn 5 Juli 1959 d;m Imp!ikasinya tcrhadap Pcrunmsan Politik Hukum Nasional'", DinamikiJ Tula Nr:gan1 Indonesia (Jakarta: Gema lnsani Press. 1996). 73·88.
1'1Sec ''Risalah Rapat Plcno kc-9 Panitia Ad Hoc I Sadan Pekerja MPR ... BuJ,;u Kcdui'I Ji/id 1:
Ri.-·a/ah Rapa! P;mftiu Ad Hoc I Badan Pckcrja A!PR RI J.:c-1 s.J Jfl Tangg11/ 11 J11n11ad 2fl02 s.d 5
1\farcl ::otJ2{Jakarta: Sekjcn MPR RI. 2002). 639-640.
ｾﾷ･ｲＮ＠ Tim Lindsey ... ｊｮ､ｯｮ｣ｾｩ｡ｮ＠ Constitutional Refonn: 1'.-1m.1Ulin!,! ｔｯ｜｜｡ｲｕｾ＠ Democracy ...
Sing.upon: iour11ifl of/11rcm<lfionuf & Con1pun1rin:: L1111 fi (2002}; 270.
38 j INDCHSL.AMIKA. \'olume II, Non1or 1. 2012/1.133
Which and Whose Shari'a?;
Historical and Political Perspectives on legal Artlcu!atlon of rs!am in Indonesia
debate over all the rnecting of MPR Annual Sessions in \Vhich the 1neaning of
s.b:11i·a as interpreted by Islan1ic parties rcn1ained unclear. If one reads carefully
through the proceedings of the meetings of Panitia (conunittee) Ad I-Ioc I in the
2002 MPR Annual Sessions, it becomes evident that there \Vas no clarity about
\Vhat kind oflslan1ic s!Jari'ait \Vas that the Islan1ic parties actually proposed. It
seems that all elements of Islamic shari'a\vould be included in their proposal.
In that case, they \Vanted the constitution to formally declare that Muslin1 citizens arc obliged to perform religious duties, \Vithout any precision as to \Vhat those duties might be.
One explanation about what kind of s!Jari'a \VOttld be officially
i1nple1nented in Indonesia came from Lukman I-Iakin1 Saifuddin (PPP). I-le
argued that his party vie\vs Islamic shari'a in three categories. The first is
·universal s!Jari·a: \Vhich comprises the principle values embraced by all
religions. such as justice. equality and n1us;';1n'ara/J (consultation). The second
is ·sJJt11i·anorn1s·. \\·hich includes all ideals oflslan1ic beliefs and practices that
are applicable only to Muslims. and not to other believers. The last is 'shari'a
ruks'. n1ost of \\·hi ch are fiq/J or legal interpretations of ,5/J,11i ·a. So111e l\.1uslin1s
n1ight accept this last ·category. but most \Yould reject it and argue oYer its
content. According to Saifuddin. the PPP put high priority (111 the first l\\·o
categories and struggles fOr their inclusion into the Indonesian legal systern
through legislative procedures. I-Jo,vever. as for the third category. such as the obligation of\vearingji/bab and severe punishments for crin1inals. the PPP \vas
not. he said, in a position to struggle for it any further.:J1
It \\'as ahvays very unlikely that a consensus over the meaning of shari'a
could be reached an1ong Islamic parties. \Vhile the PK(S) emphasized universal
sharj·a as the stepping stone for furtl1er introduction of the Islamic shari 'a into
public sphere . .::.:: I-fan1dan Zoelva (F-PBB) contended that the iv/Joie of sha1i·a
mu't he legalized. In his \Vords. ··a l'viuslin1 should carry out Islmnic s/J;JJi·a not
only in tenn of rituals but also in all legal aspects including penal. ciYil. foods
and trade. t\11 these aspects of s/Ja1i·a la\\' require the support of the state if
successful in1plen1entation is to be achieved. ··:J::
It is intt:rcsting to note here that the F-PBB. as rt:prcscntcd by Zoch·a.
\Vas ironically leaning to 'secularize' Islamic Ja\v by ackno\vledging that the
official implementation of shari'a in Indonesia "depends much on the outcome
'1Intcn,icw wi1h Lukman Hakim Saifu<ldin. a nalional legislator of the PPP. 13 Fcbruury 2004.
'.'::'Nandang BurhantKldin. p,·ncg11kan 5_variat l\·/am Nlcnurut P;11tai ｋｾｹＱ､ｩｬ｡ｮ＠ (Jakarta: Al Jannah. 2o04). ＱＱＹｾＡＲＷＮ＠
='sc0" .. Pcndllpat Akhir Fruksi Partai Bulan Binlang Tcrhadap Raucan'.!an Put11:.<111 MPR RI
ｈ｡ｾｩｬ＠ Sidang_ Tuhumm /\\PR RI
2oor·
in /l./c111p.:1fmmgJ.:a11 Syad11r lv/111n. 90-92.ArskalSalim (31-44)
of debates in the legislature". Ｒｾ＠ I-le added, "the final result of this debate \\'ould
not be a Shafi'i La\v. J-Ianafi La\v or Hanbali La\\'. but a National La\V produced by the Indonesian legislature." For Zoelva, the final \\·ording
regarding the application of sltari ·a does not belong to a council of ufan1a like
that of Iran.
In
fact, it is legislative members that hold decisive authority, \vhilcthe ulan1a are just invited to present their opinions before a decision is made.
Zoelva finally concluded that it does not matter that the legislated sbari'a is
actually a human product, so long as it is still based on God's revelation.25
Zoelva's pragn1atic stance raises the question of ho\V sbmi·a can be
referred to as God's Law and its implementation strongly demanded, \vhen the la\VS in question are basically products of human deliberation-that is. they are mostly products of legislatures. As Khaled Abou El Fadl has pointed otlt. "Al! la\VS articulated and applied in a state are thoroughly hun1an and should be
treated as such. These laws are a part of sl1aii'a la\v only to the extent that any
set ofhu1nan legal opinions can be said to be a part of sbari'a'".26 Gh·en this. it
is no \vonder that a huge nun1ber of Indonesian Muslims. at least as represented
by the t\\'O biggest lslm11ic organization: Nahdlatul Ulan1a and 1'1uhain1nadiyah.
haYe Yery diiTerent YiSions of sfu1ri'J_27 opposed the proposal of the Islan1ic
parties 10 a1nend A .. rticlc 29 in the 2002 l\'1PR Annual ｓ･ｳｳｩｯｮＮ Ｒｾ＠
Conclusion
Although Isla1nic parties and so1ne state functionaries have been keen to
fonnally facilitate the in1plcrnentation of sbari ·a in Indonesia. this is 1i·cqucntly
rejected by various groups crilicizing \Vhat they mean by the term ｳｬＱ｡ｲｩＧｾＱＮ＠ \Vhat
these people often \Vant is to go back to the authentic application of shmi'a:.
ｾｾｬｮｴ｣ｲ｜Ｂｩｃ｜｜Ｂ＠ \\"ilh Ham<l:m Zod\a. 16 February 2004. CL Aharon Laybh. ··Thl:' Contributil'll
or the .Mo<lcn1bh to ｴｨｾ＠ Scculariwtion of ｬｾｬ｡ｭｩ｣＠ La\\"-. 1\fidd/c Ea.,-rcrn Studies 2-t ( ｊｑＷｾＱＺ＠
263-277.
:.•!men k\\ with 1-lamJ;m Zixha. !6 February 200-t_ ｏｴｨｾｲ＠ proponcm:- of ,Jwri'11 m
ｬｮ＼ｬｯｮＮＺＺｾｩ｡Ｎ＠ ｾｵ｣ｨ＠ ｡ｾ＠ i\lajdb ;\lttiahldin lnJoncsia. Fronl Pcmbeht [,Jam. Hizbut T;1hrir anJ La:-h;u JihaJ. wouli.l \Chcmcnth· Jb<1!!rc<' with Zoch a":-ｾｴ｡ｴ｣ｲｮｬＺＧｮｌ＠ For more infon11:1ti0n on the ,ft;11i":1
Ykws of these ls!an1ic ｩｲｯｵｰｳＮｾｳ｣｣Ｎ＠ for instance. Jan1hari ani.l Jajimg Jahroni (c<lsJ. Gcraka11 S:t!a!i
Rudikul di /J1Jonc.,fa cJak:1n;1 Raia Grafin<lo P.::t'latla. 20!"\.tl: '"blam anJ Pl.'i\Cl" BuilJin!! in
Jn<loncsia: The Analysis o! Ra<licai lvlo\cmcnt anti Thtir Implication fOr Sccurity·l:X\clop1;1..::111 Prospects .. (Jakarta: ICIP-JICA. 2004): Khamami Zada ｦｾＯ［ｵｮ＠ Radikul: PcrguhJtan Om1as-Orr11as
/slam ｇ｡ｲｩｾｋ｣ｲ｡ｳ､ｩ＠ fndoI1csi11(Jakarta: Tcrajll 2002).
1"Khalcd Abou El Fad]. /<;/nm and the Challenge of .Democracy (Princeton: Princeton
Uni\'ersity Press. 2004) 36: Cf. rny\\·orking definition ofshariiJ(Figurc 2. l) in Chapter Two ..
ｾﾷｉｮ＠ a discussion hc!<l by 1hc AsiaLink, [he Unircristy of Melbourne. 15 Februaiy 2003. Hasyin1 Muzadi, chainnan of NU. explained the stance of NU opposing the insertion of sc\·cn words into Article 29 oft he Constitution. He said that NU docs not cxptct sf11.1ri'11to be codified as state law. but mere Iv as communal directi\'CS for Muslims.
ｾｾｓ･｣＠ -·Nu Tolak Piagam Jakarta ... S11;1n1 P.·n1fianmn. 12 September 2001: .. Tiga On11as
Islam Tolak Pia!!an1 Jakarta··. ,\kdi:1 /J1dom .. ··sia. 30 lvtav 2002: "1\·tuhammudivah Lc!!a. Pasa! 29
Tetap ... 1\1cdi;1 /;;Jo1u:: . ..:fa 12 Augtht 2002. ' .
-40
I
INDO-ISLAMIKA, ｜Ｂ｣ｾｬｵｭｾ＠ II, ｎ｜ｾｮｬｑｦＱＮ＠ 2012/1-133Which arid Whose Shari'a?:
Historical and Political Perspectives ori legal Articulation of Islam in Indonesia
although it is not clear \Vhat they mean by this. In fact, as Kozlo\vski points
out. \Vhen religious actors or Jvluslim politicians call for the official
in1plen1cntation of siuui 'a in nlany nlajority-inhabited Muslin1 countries. they
actually advocate a return to the period of colonial states, where sbari'a had an
organizational struc1ure compatible \Vith the modem nation state, and not to
the time of the Prophet or the era of the caliphates.29
Proposals of the Islamic parties to amend Article 29 of the 1945 Constitution \Vere inappropriate because they intended to restrict the list of specific liberties mentioned in Article 28 on I--Iuman Rights in the Constitution. \vhich had been decided earlier. This incongruence stems from the fact that lslarnic parties· proposals gave en1phasis to (religious) duties O\'er rights, despile their proposals being expressed in terms of rights. If successful. the
proposal for sbari 'a in1plen1entation \vould restrict religious freedo111 of
individuals in the nan1e of conmn1nal religious obligations. Certain citizens of the Indonesian stale \\"ould be treated not as autonon1ous individual subjcc1s bu1 as n1embcrs of a religious con1n1tmity-so111ething that is fundan1ental contradiction \Yith the concept of a nation-state. This \\·ould likely alienate and coerce citizens \Yho do not subscribe to the official or dominant religious interpretation and \\'ould foster political divisiYencss an1ong citizens of
different religious al111intions. 3" Nluch clearer inconsistency is discernible
bet\Vcen the aspiration frir the fom1al implementation of sba1i"a and
constitutional rights of religious freedom. As the constitutional principle of
equal citizenship in ... \rticle 281 (2) mandates that all citizens have equal rights,
regardless of their ethnicity. gender. or religion,31 la\vmaking that is solely
based on. and for the interest oi: one particular religion 1nay breach this provision of Constitution.
Despite sha1i'a has been able to seep into scattered legal aspects \\'ithin
Indonesian state and ｾｯ｣ｩ･ＱｾﾷＭ it is nonetheless largely a slate product rather than
as a cultural process. The state not only allt)\\"S sluui',1 to be incL\rporatcd in
n1any \\"ays into its structure. as \\·ell as into its legal syste111. natiOn<llly and
.!'IScc Gregory C. Kozlo\\":;ki. "\Vhcn the "\Vay'' Becomes the "Law"': Mo<lem States an<l the -, ｔｲ｡ｮｳｾｯｮｮ｡ｴｩｯｮ＠ or Halakhah an<l sharFd', Studies in l<il:m1ic and Judaic Traditio11s ff. eds. William
ｾＭｂｮｬＡｮ･Ｚ＠ and Stephen D. Ricks. (Atlanta. Georgia: Scholars Press. 1989), 106; Cf. MB. Hooker.
ｾｉ｟ｮｴｲｲｩ､ｵ｣ｴＱｯｮＺ＠ hlamic Law in ｓｯｵｴｨ･｡ｾｴ＠ ａｾｩ｡＠ ... The All'ifralian Journal of Asitm L:111·4 (3) (2002):
ＷＩｽＬＭｾｉＭｾＺ＠ Abo cf. Ahmad ｂ｡ｾｯＮ＠ L-·lmn Pasca-J:olonial- Pcrsclingkulwn Agill11a. ｋｯｬｯＱＱｩ｡ｬｴＺｾｭｲＺＺ＠ d:m
lj,ix(a{;;\'mc Ｈｂ｡ｾ､ｵｮｧＺ＠ Mizan. 2005).
Cf. Lucm<la Peach. Lcgr:,·lating i\lorn/ity: Plun1liHm a11d Rcli!!iou.,· /dcntitv in Lmnnakim:
ＨｏｸＮｦｯｲｾＺ＠ ｏｸｾｯｲ､＠ ｕｮｩ｜ﾷｬＺＧｾｩｴｹ＠ Prl:'ss. 2002). 7. ｾ＠ • ¥
fi
ｾＭ,
ｓｰ｣ＺＧＮｦｩｾ｡｜ｾｹＮ＠ Article 21-:! CJ of the 1945 Constitution ｲＮＺ＼ｩ＼ｬｾ＠ ··E;1ch pcr:-on lws the right to be rec_ trom_ ＱＮｨｾ｣ｲｮｮｭ｡ｴｯｲｹ＠ trc:nmcnt in order to gain the ｾｭＱ･＠ opportunities an<l benefit:- in the :ltt;immcnt of equality anJjLblicc ...Arskal Salim {31-44)
regionally. but also skilfully controls and restricts this dispersion. In short. sl1a1J'are1nains tightly confined in Indonesia.
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-"Pendapat Akhir Fraksi Partai Bulan Bintang Terhadap Rancangan Putusan
MPR RI l-Iasil Sidang Tahunan MPR RI 2001" in Mempe1juangkan
Syruiat Islam, 90-92.
ＬＭｾｒｩｳＳＮｬ｡ｨ＠
Rapat Pleno ke-9 Panitia Ad l:loc I Badan Pekerja MPR'', Buku Kedua .Ti/id 1· Risala.b Rapa! Paniti,7 Ad I-Joe I Sadan Pekelja MPR RI ke-1 s.d JO Tanggal 11Januari2002 s.d S 1\laret 2002. Jakarta: Sekjcn 1i1PR RI. 2002. 639-640.Arska!Salim (31-44)
Interviews
Intervie\v \Vilh I-Ian1dan Zoe!va. 16 February 2004.
Intervic\v \Vith Lukman Hakin1 Saifuddin, a National Legislator of the PPP, 13 February 2004.
Article 39 of the Law no. 1/1974 on "tviarriage.
44 J INDO-ISLAMIKA. \\,lumt'll. Nomorl, :!OI::/H33
Simbol Keislaman pada Tradisi
Rokat Tase'
dalam Komunikasi pada Masyarakat Desa Nepa,
Banyuates-Sampang Madura
\Vahyu Ilaihi dan Siti Aisah
Dosen Fakultas Dal.\val1 IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya [email protected]
Abstract
l-Iun1an uses symbol in its coffilnunication activity. The sy1nbol can manifest in verbal and non-verbal things. Original culture of a society defines the \vay ho\v
they communicate and the symbol they use. The society of desa Nepa is not an
exception. They have used a symbol in performing their local tradition. Rokat
Tase·. The sy1nbol used in Rokat Tase· is a non-verbal symbol of communication. \\'hi ch is manifested in actions and delivery of foods and goods
{sesaji). This article discusses the Tradisi Roka! Tt1se ·and its n1eaning \Yilhin
1he ｳｯ｣ｩｾｴｹ＠ of desa Nspa. Using bibliographical and cn1pirical inversitigation. this article argues that the n1ain meaning and ain1 of that syn1bol is to pray and hope that God {J\liah) protects the society in general and sailors in particular. That is also to prevent the occurrence of disaster and calan1ity and to ask for
prosperity and for abundant fishes froin sailing. 1t also stresses that the
1neaning of this syn1bol is reached \\'ilhin society's interaction process and is agreed by all the parties involved in the interaction.
Abstrak
Manusia melakukan komunikasi dengan menggunakan simbol. yang dapat berupa si1nbol verbal 111aupun non Ycrba!. Budaya asal seseorang sangat menentukan bagahnana orang tersebut herkonn1nikasi dengan n1cnggunakan sin1bol. seperti halnya 1nasyarakat des<i Nepa. yang n1ayoritas berag::una Islan1.
1nenggunakan simbol pada tradisi Rok;ll Tase ·yang dilakukan secara turun
tcnn1run. Bentuk sin1hol ko1nunikasi pada tradisi RoJ.:at Tasr:· berupa si1nbol
komunikasi non verbal. yaitu sesaji dan tindakan-tindakan. Artikcl ini mengkaji
tentang tradisi Rokat Tase' dan maknanya di kalangan masyarakat desa Nepa.
Artikel ini mengungkapkan bah\va inti dari makna simbol dalam tradisi Rokat
Tase: adalah do"a dan pengharapan kepada Allah agar rnen1berikan
keselamatan bagi masyarakat secara umum dan bagi para nelayan ketika n1elaut
serta menolak segala bala yang mungkin ak<in datang. Doa juga dipanjatkan untuk me111inta rejeki yang berlin1pah dari hasil tangkapan ikan ketika melaut. Artikel ini n1cnegaskan bal1\va pemaknaan simbol tcrsebut adalah basil dari
