A Corpus-based analysis of subordinating conjunctions since and because in adverbial clause of reason.

ABSTRACT

Duanaya, Ineke. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions

Since and Because in Adverbial Clause of Reason. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma

University.

To introduce clause expressing the cause or reason or the idea expressed in

the independent clause, people need subordinating conjunctions named

subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason. Based on the finding in

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because and since

occurred

in bigger number of frequency than other subordinating conjunctions in adverbial

clause of reason. Because

and

since also have similarity in meaning, so they are

synonymous words. They also share the same function to introduce adverbial

clause of reason.

There are two research problems formulated in this study: 1) What are the

frequencies of since and

because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in

adverbial clause of reason in COCA 2010 - 2012? 2) What clause patterns occur

with

since

and

because

as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of

reason? Therefore, the objectives of this research are to see the frequency of since

and

because

specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of

reason in COCA 2010

–

2012 and to identify the pattern of clause following since

and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason.

The study was quantitative research and qualitative research. This study

used corpus based analysis to gather the data of since

and because. The data was

taken from COCA 2010

–

2012. The study used purposive sampling method to get

100 tokens for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of

reason. The researcher used the theories of frequency in corpus linguistics to solve

the first research problem. The researcher also employed the definition of

since

and

because

from the dictionaries. Meanwhile, to solve the second research

problems, the researcher used the theories of clause patterns.

From the data taken, the researcher found that since occurred 24,807 times

in COCA 2010

– 2012, while

because

occurred 68,321 times in COCA 2010

-2012. To get a hundred data for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in

adverbial clause, the researcher needed 400 data of since and 121 data of because.

After analyzing the data, the researcher found five clause patterns occurred with

since. There were Subject-Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb

intransitive-(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive

–Direct

object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object Complement. On the contrary,

there were six clause patterns that occurred with

because. They were Subject–

Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb intransitive-(Adverbial),

Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object, Subject-Verb

transitive-Indirect Object-Direct Object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object

Complement.

ABSTRAK

Duanaya, Ineke. 2015.

A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions

Since

and

Because

in Adverbial Clause of Reason.

Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata

Dharma.

Untuk memperkenalkan klausa tentang sebab-akibat atau gagasan yang

ditunjukkan di induk kalimat, seseorang membutuhkan kata penghubung yang

disebut dengan kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Berdasarkan penemuan

di

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because

dan

since

muncul

dalam jumlah frekuensi yang lebih besar daripada kata penghubung-kata

penghubung yang lain dari klausa

keterangan

sebab.

Because

dan

since

juga

mempunyai persamaan dalam arti sehingga mereka bersinonim. Mereka juga

berbagi fungsi yang sama untuk memperkenalkan klausa keterangan sebab-akibat.

Ada dua rumusan permasalahan di penelitian ini, yaitu 1) Berapa frekuensi

dari kata

since

dan

because

terutama sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan

sebab di

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)

pada tahun 2010

–

2012?

2)

Apa saja bentuk-bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan

since

dan

because

sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab? Oleh sebab itu, tujuan

penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat frekuensi dari

since

dan

because

terutama

sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab.

Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kuantitafif dan kualitatif dengan

menggunakan corpus based analysis untuk mengumpulkan data

since

dan

because

.

Data ini diambil dari

COCA

2010

–

2012.

Penelitian ini menggunakan metode

purposive sampling

untuk mendapatakan 100 data untuk setiap kata

since

dan

because

sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Peneliti menggunakan

teori-teori tentang frekuensi di

corpus linguistics

untuk menyelesaikan rumusan

masalah pertama. Peneliti juga menggunakan definisi

since

dan

because

dari

berbagai kamus. Di samping itu, untuk menyelesaikan rumusan masalah kedua,

peneliti menggunakan berbagai teori tentang bentuk-bentuk klausa.

Dari data yang diambil, peneliti menemukan jika

since

terjadi sebanyak

24,807 kali di

COCA

2010

–

2012, sedangkan

because

muncul sebanyak 68,321

kali di

COCA

2010

–

2012. Untuk mendapatkan seratus data untuk setiap kata

tersebut sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab, peneliti membutuhkan

400 data

since

dan 121 data

because

. Setelah menganalisis data, peneliti

menemukan lima bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan

since

, yaitu

Subject

–

Linking

Verb-Subject Complement, Subject

–

Verb intransitive

–

(Adverbial),

Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object,

dan

Subject-Verb-Direct

Object-Object Complement.

Disamping itu, terdapat enam bentuk klausa yang mengikuti

kata

because, yaitu Subject

–

Linking Verb

–

Subject Complement, Subject

–

Verb

intransitive

–

(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct

object, Subject

–

Verb transitive

–

Indirect Object

–

Direct Object, dan Subject

–

Verb

–

Direct Object

–

Object Complement.

A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

SINCE

AND

BECAUSE

IN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF REASON

A

SARJANA PENDIDIKAN

THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the

Sarjana Pendidikan

Degree

in English Language Education

By

Ineke Duanaya

Student Number: 101214151

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

i

A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

SINCE

AND

BECAUSE

IN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF REASON

A

SARJANA PENDIDIKAN

THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the

Sarjana Pendidikan

Degree

in English Language Education

By

Ineke Duanaya

Student Number: 101214151

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

Del'ended before the Board

of

Examiners on 3.1 .lui-v 2015

and Declared Acceptable

Board

of

Exnminers

Chairperson

Secretary

Member

Mernber

iv

“

FAITH

IT DOES NOT

MAKE THINGS

EASY

IT MAKES THEM

POSSIBLE

”

(Luke 1:37)

Dedicated to

Bapak and Ibu, for the love, hope, and prayer

&

I

honestly declare that this thesis,

which I

have

written,

does

not contain the

work

or

parts

of

the

work

of

otherpeople,

except those cited

in

the quotations and the references, as a

scientific

paper should.

Yogyakarta, 31 July

2015

The

writer

Ineke Duanaya

Yang bertanda tangan

di bawah

ini,

saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama

: Ineke Duanaya

Nomor

Mahasiswa :

I0l2l4l5l

Demi

pengembangan

ilmu

pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas

Sanata

Dharma

karya

ilmiah

saya yang

berjudul:

A

CORPUS.BASED

ANALYSIS

OF

SUBORDINATING

C

ONJUNCTIONS

SINCE AND

BECAUSE

IN ADVERBIAL

CLAUSE

OF

REASON

beserta perangkat yang

diperlukan

(bila

ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan

kepada

Perpustakaan

Universitas

Sanata

Dharma

hak

untuk

menyimpan,

mengalihkan

dalam bentuk

lain,

mengelolanya

dalam bentuk

pangkalan

data,

mendistribusikan

secara terbatas, dan

mempublikasikannya

di

intemet

atau meCia

iain untuk

kepentingan akademis tanpa

perlu

meminta

ijin kepada saya

atau

memberikan

royalti

kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai

penulis.

Demikian peniyataan

ini

saya buat dengan sebenarnya,

Dibuat

di Yogyakarta

Padatanggal

: 31

Juli

2015

Yang menyatakan

vii

ABSTRACT

Duanaya, Ineke. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions

Since and Because in Adverbial Clause of Reason. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma

University.

To introduce clause expressing the cause or reason or the idea expressed in

the independent clause, people need subordinating conjunctions named

subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason. Based on the finding in

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because and since

occurred

in bigger number of frequency than other subordinating conjunctions in adverbial

clause of reason. Because

and

since also have similarity in meaning, so they are

synonymous words. They also share the same function to introduce adverbial

clause of reason.

There are two research problems formulated in this study: 1) What are the

frequencies of since and

because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in

adverbial clause of reason in COCA 2010 - 2012? 2) What clause patterns occur

with

since

and

because

as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of

reason? Therefore, the objectives of this research are to see the frequency of since

and

because

specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of

reason in COCA 2010

–

2012 and to identify the pattern of clause following since

and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason.

The study was quantitative research and qualitative research. This study

used corpus based analysis to gather the data of since

and because. The data was

taken from COCA 2010

–

2012. The study used purposive sampling method to get

100 tokens for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of

reason. The researcher used the theories of frequency in corpus linguistics to solve

the first research problem. The researcher also employed the definition of

since

and

because

from the dictionaries. Meanwhile, to solve the second research

problems, the researcher used the theories of clause patterns.

From the data taken, the researcher found that since occurred 24,807 times

in COCA 2010

– 2012, while

because

occurred 68,321 times in COCA 2010

-2012. To get a hundred data for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in

adverbial clause, the researcher needed 400 data of since and 121 data of because.

After analyzing the data, the researcher found five clause patterns occurred with

since. There were Subject-Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb

intransitive-(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive

–Direct

object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object Complement. On the contrary,

there were six clause patterns that occurred with

because. They were Subject–

Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb intransitive-(Adverbial),

Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object, Subject-Verb

transitive-Indirect Object-Direct Object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object

Complement.

viii

ABSTRAK

Duanaya, Ineke. 2015.

A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions

Since and Because in Adverbial Clause of Reason. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata

Dharma.

Untuk memperkenalkan klausa tentang sebab-akibat atau gagasan yang

ditunjukkan di induk kalimat, seseorang membutuhkan kata penghubung yang

disebut dengan kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Berdasarkan penemuan

di Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because dan since muncul

dalam jumlah frekuensi yang lebih besar daripada kata penghubung-kata

penghubung yang lain dari klausa

keterangan sebab.

Because dan

since juga

mempunyai persamaan dalam arti sehingga mereka bersinonim. Mereka juga

berbagi fungsi yang sama untuk memperkenalkan klausa keterangan sebab-akibat.

Ada dua rumusan permasalahan di penelitian ini, yaitu 1) Berapa frekuensi

dari kata since dan because terutama sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan

sebab di Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) pada tahun 2010

–

2012? 2)

Apa saja bentuk-bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan

since dan

because

sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab? Oleh sebab itu, tujuan

penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat frekuensi dari

since dan

because terutama

sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab.

Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kuantitafif dan kualitatif dengan

menggunakan corpus based analysis untuk mengumpulkan data since dan because.

Data ini diambil dari

COCA 2010

–

2012. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode

purposive sampling untuk mendapatakan 100 data untuk setiap kata

since dan

because sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Peneliti menggunakan

teori-teori tentang frekuensi di corpus linguistics

untuk menyelesaikan rumusan

masalah pertama. Peneliti juga menggunakan definisi

since dan

because dari

berbagai kamus. Di samping itu, untuk menyelesaikan rumusan masalah kedua,

peneliti menggunakan berbagai teori tentang bentuk-bentuk klausa.

Dari data yang diambil, peneliti menemukan jika

since terjadi sebanyak

24,807 kali di COCA 2010

–

2012, sedangkan because muncul sebanyak 68,321

kali di

COCA 2010

–

2012. Untuk mendapatkan seratus data untuk setiap kata

tersebut sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab, peneliti membutuhkan

400 data

since dan 121 data

because. Setelah menganalisis data, peneliti

menemukan lima bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan since, yaitu Subject

–

Linking

Verb-Subject Complement, Subject

–

Verb intransitive

–

(Adverbial),

Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object, dan Subject-Verb-Direct

Object-Object Complement. Disamping itu, terdapat enam bentuk klausa yang mengikuti

kata

because, yaitu Subject

–

Linking Verb

–

Subject Complement, Subject

–

Verb

intransitive

–

(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct

object, Subject

–

Verb transitive

–

Indirect Object

–

Direct Object, dan Subject

–

Verb

–

Direct Object

–

Object Complement.

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank

JESUS CHRIST

–

my Savior, my Hope,

and the One whom I really depend on. An impossible thing for me is an easy thing

for God. A cul-de-sac blocking me can be opened by His power specifically

during this thesis process. Nothing is impossible with God. By His grace, I could

finish this thesis.

For everything, I would like to thank my father in heaven

Bapak

Edy

Pamungkas

and

Ibu

Sri

Rus Wahyuni Aksiati

. I give thanks to

Bapak

for his

love, care, and prayer during his life. I also feel grateful to have such a mother like

Ibu, who always do everything for the best thing for her children. I thank her so

much for always mentioning my name in her prayer. I would not have been able

to finish my study without my brother

Perdana Arum Cristhie

because of his

nagging questions about my study. Because of them, I can say that family is the

best thing I always have in the world.

My great appreciation goes to my sponsor,

Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd.,

M.Hum.

,

who has willingly and patiently helped me. I thank her for her time,

guidance, patience, critical questions, and support during the last three semesters.

I would like to thank all my ELESP lectures for teaching me in Sanata

Dharma University. I specially thank my academic advisor,

Henny Herawati,

S.Pd., M.Hum.

, for her guidance during my study in ELESP. Moreover, I thank

x

English Language Education Study Program and Faculty of Teachers

Training and Education of Sanata Dharma University

and

all librarians

for

giving the best and friendly service.

Then, I would like to thank all friends in PBI especially PBI 2010 C, my

group in Play Performance,

Velum

, my work partners in

Green Millet,

PKS

Gloria

and

EEPro.

For every support and companion, I thank

Dita, Tiwi,

Pandhu, Disa, Maki, Ijah, Nutnut, Monic, Wara, Dochi, Yos, Kapuk, Siwi,

Andre, Puput,

and

Sartika

. I thank them for being there in my ups and downs.

The laughter, discussion,

and happy moments we shared won’t ever be forgotten.

I would not have been able to finish my thesis without the masterpiece of

John Mayer, John Legend, Jamie Cullum, Gabrielle Aplin, Birdy, Norah

Jones, Lala Karmela,

and

Monita Tahalea

. I thank God for blues, jazz, folk and

pop.

Lastly, I thank everyone who have helped and supported me -those whom

I cannot mention one by one. May God shower them with His exceeding

blessings.

The writer

xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ...

i

APPROVAL PAGES ...

ii

DEDICATION PAGE ...

iv

ST

ATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

...

v

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ...

vi

ABSTRACT ...

vii

ABSTRAK ...

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...

xi

LIST OF TABLES ...

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES ...

xv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

A.

Research Background ...

1

B.

Research Problems ...

5

C.

Problem Limitation ...

5

D.

Research Objectives ...

6

E.

Research Benefits ...

6

F.

Definition of Terms ...

7

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A.

Theoretical Description ...

10

1.

Corpus Linguistics ...

10

2.

Semantics Approach ...

15

3.

Conjunctions ...

20

4.

Clause ...

21

xii

B.

Theoretical Framework ...

32

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A.

Research Method ...

35

B.

Research Setting ...

37

C.

Research Subjects ...

37

D.

Instrument and Data Gathering Techniques ...

38

E.

Data Analysis Techniques ...

39

F.

Research Procedure ...

40

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. The Frequencies of Since and Because in COCA ...

43

1.

The frequency of since in COCA 2010

–

2012 ...

44

2.

The frequency of because in COCA 2010

–

2012

…….

.

48

B. The Pattern of Since and Because as Subordinating

Conjunctions in

Adverbial Clause of Reason in COCA …..

51

1.

The clause pattern following since as a subordinating

conjunction in adverbial clause of reason ... 51

2.

The clause pattern following because as a subordinating

conjunction in adverbial clause of reason ...

59

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A.

Conclusions ...

69

B.

Implications ...

71

C.

Recommendations ...

73

REFERENCES ...

74

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page

4.1

Since’s

Frequency of Occurrence in 400 Samples in

COCA 2010

–

2012 ...

46

4.2

Because’s Frequency of Occurrence in 121 Samples in

COCA 2010 – 2012 ...

49

4.3

Basic Clause Pattern Following Since as a Subordinating

Conjunction in Adverbial Clause of Reason in COCA

2010 – 2012 ...

52

4.4

Basic Clause Pattern Following

Because as a

Subordinating Conjunction in Adverbial Clause of

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Page

4.1

Chart of Since in COCA 2010 – 2012 ...

45

xv

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

Page

APPENDIX A

The Tokens of Since 2010 – 2012 in COCA ...

77

APPENDIX B

The Tokens of Because 2010

–

2012 in COCA ...

104

APPENDIX C

The Tokens of Basic Clause Pattern Following Since

in COCA 2010 – 2012 ...

113

APPENDIX D

The Tokens of Basic Clause Pattern Following

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher discusses the background of this research. The

background of the research describes the researcher

’s ideas. This chapter consists

of the research background, the problem formulations, the problem limitation, the

research objectives, and the definition of terms.

A.

Research Background

To introduce a clause expressing the cause/reason or the idea expressed in

the independent clause, people need a subordinating conjunction. The subordinating

conjunction is called subordinating conjunction/subordinator in adverbial clause of

reason. The subordinating conjunctions that can be used to introduce adverbial of

reason are since, because, so (that), or now that (Azar, 2009). Based on the findings

in Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA),

because

occurs 592,769

times,

since

occurs 225,237 times,

so (that)

occurs 62,555 times, and

now that

occurs 23,104 times. Because takes the highest number of the frequencies. Then, it

is followed by since who took 225,237 times. It can be concluded that because

is

the subordinator in adverbial clause of reason that commonly used. Moreover, since

stands on the second rank of subordinator in adverbial clause of reason that mostly

used in COCA.

adverbial clause of reason. According to

Oxford Learners Dictionaries

online

version, since can be categorized in three word classes, they are preposition, adverb,

and conjunction

(“Since”)

. Since

can be functioned as a conjunction in adverbial

clause of time and a conjunction in adverbial clause of reason.

Oxford Learner

Dictionaries online version states that

since has a function as

because

(“Since”)

.

Meanwhile, the meaning of because based on Oxford Learners Dictionaries online

version is for the reason that

(“Because”)

. In Oxford Learners Dictionaries online

version,

because

is classified as a conjunction

(“Because”)

. Moreover, Online

Etymology Dictionary

reveals that the etymology of

since

as a conjunction came

from the late fourteenth century, while the origin word of because is bi cause

“by

cause” which appeared in

1300 (

“Since”

).

Oxford Learners Dictionaries online

version also states that word origin of

because

is influenced by Old French

par

cause de which means by reason of

(“Because”)

.

formally, we can say that term A is synonymous with term B if every referent of A

is a referent of B and vice versa. The point of synonymy is two or more words mean

the same thing. The word

since

and

because

refer to the subordinator which

introduces the reason.

Since the word since and because have the same meaning and also similarity

in function, the researcher wants to analyze the linguistic phenomenon that can be

appeared with those subordinating conjunctions. In order to investigate the data of

language like language variation and use, some linguists use corpus. In this study,

corpus will be used to collect the data of since

and because. By using corpus, the

researcher is able to discover the data. Biber, Conrad, and Reppen (2002) say that

a corpus which is the collection of written and spoken language that is stored in

computers, can be used to present all the contexts in which a word occurs. By

looking at the data from the corpus, the researcher can investigate the frequencies

of since and because in corpus. Moreover, corpus enables the researcher to see the

grammatical pattern of clause following since and because.

McEnery and Wilson (2001) have described the relation between corpus

linguistics and syntactic study:

Grammatical or syntactic studies have been the most frequent types of

research which have used corpora. Corpora are important for syntactic

research because it has potential for the representative quantification of the

grammar of a whole language variety. The corpora’s empirical data are

also quantifiable and representative, for the testing of hypotheses derived

from grammatical theory” (p

p. 109-110).

interclausal cohesion.

Since

is one of the conjunctions which have temporal and

causal uses. The use of since as a subordinating conjunction in adverbial clause of

reason appears in both written and spoken English. By using corpus-based analysis,

the researcher is able to know the use of

since

in written or spoken English. A

research conducted by Kennedy (1998) shows these following results:

Thirty five percent of the 542 tokens of since in the LOB Corpus express

causation. However, in the academic genre 64% of the uses of since

express causation. In the academic section of the Brown Corpus, 86%

mark since as causation. In the LLC of spoken British English, on the other

hand, 24% of 161 tokens of since are causal (p. 148).

Those data example proves that the use of corpus analysis is useful to collect

data. Since corpus is a great database of words, corpus enable a researcher to take

data in great numbers. Based on the data collected, the researcher is able to know

the pattern of clause following the adverbial clause of reason like since

and because.

The source of the corpus needed will be obtained from

Corpus of

Contemporary American English (COCA). COCA consists of written and spoken

corpus from 1990 to 2012 (Davies, n.d.). It is chosen as the data because it contains

the largest freely-available corpus of English which contains 450 million words of

text. To comprehend the recent use of the subordinators

since

and

because, the

study will use corpus from 2010 to 2012 because the latest corpus in COCA comes

from those years.

and to discover the facts about language which have never been noticed or written

about previously. Therefore, corpus makes this study possible to examine the

characteristics of

since

and

because

as subordinating conjunction in adverbial

clause of reason.

B.

Research Problems

Based on the background, the research problems are:

1.

What are the frequencies of since and because specifically as the subordinating

conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason in COCA 2010

–

2012?

2.

What clause patterns occur with

since

and

because

as subordinating

conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason?

C.

Problem Limitation

contains more than 450 million words of text and was equally divided among

spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic text (Davies, n.d.).

D.

Research Objectives

First, the objective of this research is to see the frequency of

since

and

because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason.

Second, another objective of this research is to identify the pattern of clause

following

since

and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of

reason in COCA 2010

–

2012.

E.

Research Benefits

This research has some benefits. For the English Language learners, this

research gives them understanding about the use of

since

and

because

as the

subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason. They will be able to

differentiate the use of since and because in a sentence. Moreover, they will be able

to apply the clause pattern in order to use English correctly.

F.

Definition of Terms

1.

Corpus-based Analysis

Kennedy (1998) states,

“corpus is a body of written text or transcribed

speech which can serve as a basic for linguistic analysis and description” (p. 1).

Corpus linguistics is not a branch of linguistics in the same sense as syntax,

semantics, sociolinguistics, and so on. Corpus linguistics in contract is a

methodology rather than an aspect of language requiring explanation or description.

Therefore, corpus linguistics is a methodology that may be used in almost any area

of linguistics, but it does not limit an area of linguistics itself.

According to Biber (2002), corpus-based analysis has some essential

characteristics:

It is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts; it

utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a

“corpus”, as the basis for analysis; it makes extensive use of computers for

analysis, using both automatic and interactive techniques; it depends on

both quantitative and analytical techniques (p. 4).

Corpus-based analysis uses computers for the whole processes. Computers

make it enable to identify and analyze complex pattern of language use, allowing

the storage and analysis of a larger database of natural language than could be dealt

with by hand.

2.

Subordinating Conjunction

subordinating conjunctions are if, when, while, whether, because, and since. Since

and

because

are subordinating conjunctions which have function to introduce

adverbial clause of reason.

3.

Since

According to Cambridge Dictionaries online, since has two meanings as the

conjunction of time and the conjunction which has the same meaning as

because

(“Since”)

. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the origin meaning of the

word

since

as a conjunction came from the late of 14

th

century, while since as a

preposition came in the year 1510s

(“Since”)

. According to

Longman Language

Activator, the word since which has the same meaning as because is usually used

to introduce the reason why you decide to do something or suggest doing something

(“Since”)

. In this research, the researcher would like to analyze

since

as the

conjunction which has the same meaning as

because. Since

belongs to

subordinating conjunction in adverbial clause of reason.

4.

Because

conjunction in adverbial clause of reason. The function of because is to be the

conjunction in adverbial clause of reason.

5.

Adverbial Clause of Reason

10

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher discusses two major parts which are theoritical

description and

theoritical

framework. The theoritical description presents the theory

of corpus linguistics, corpus-based analysis, conjunction, COCA, and word classes.

Meanwhile, the theoritical framework describes the theories used to answer the

research problems.

A.

Theoritical Description

In this part, the resarcher discusses the theory of corpus linguitics,

corpus-based analysis, word classes, and conjunction.

1.

Corpus Linguistics

In 2010, Kaplan states that

“corpus linguistics is a research approach that

has developed over the past several decades to support empirical investigations of

language variation and use, resulting in research findings that have much greater

generalizability and validity that would be otherwise be feasible” (p.

548). Corpus

According to Biber, Conrad, and Reppen, corpus linguistics could be regarded as

primarly a methodological approach because:

It is empirical, analyzing the actual pattern of use in natural texts; It utilizes

a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a corpus, as the

basis for analysis; It makes extensive use of computers for analysis,

employing both automatic and interactive techniques; It depends on both

quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques (as cited in Kaplan, 2010,

p. 548).

Davies and Elder (2004) state,

“corpus linguistics aims to improve language

description and theory, and the task for applied linguistics is to assess the relevance

of this work to practical application. It is essential for accurately describing

language use, and have shown how lexis, grammar, and semantic interact”

(p. 106).

This statement is quite similar to

Kaplan’s statement. All of them state that co

rpus

linguistics is used to gather the data of language. According to Davies and Elder

(2004), corpora provide observable evidence about language use, which leads to

new descriptions, which in turn are embodied in dictionaries, grammars, and

teaching materials (pp. 106-107). However, corpus is used as the source of

evidences in this research. Corpus study is useful for a study of grammar because

grammarian might want to know the differences or the similarities of constructions

between two synonymous words. Therefore, Davies and Elder (2004) conclude that

“it is an empirical approach to study language, which uses observations of attesed

data in order to make generalizations about lexis, grammar, and semantics and

therefore corpora solve the problem of observing pattern of language use

”

(p. 107).

a.

Corpus-based Analysis

Using corpus-based approach means studying the use of language characteristics

by considering the proper pattern. Biber et al. (2002) say,

“a

ssociation patterns

represent quantitative relations, measuring the extent to which features and variants

are associat

ed with contextual factors” (p.

4). However, they add that functional

(qualitative) interpretation is also an essential step in any corpus-based analysis, so

the relationship between quantitative and qualitative techniques will be discussed

in corpus-based approach (p. 4).

Corpus-based analysis has some characteristics. Biber et al. (2002) mentions

the essential charactheristic of corpus-based analysis are:

1.

It is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts;

2.

It utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a

“corpus,” as the basis for analysis;

3.

It makes extensive use of computers for analysis, using both automatic

and interactive techniques.

4.

It depends on both quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques (p.

4).

“observation is not restricted to any single method, but concordances are essential

for studying lexical, grammati

cal, and semantic patterns” (p.

107). Corpus-based

analysis is not only dealing with the simple counts of linguitics feature. Therefore,

it is essential to include qualitative research in corpus-based analysis.

b.

Frequency

A corpus presents the data which are varied enough, coming from multiple

sources that shows the tendencies from multiple registers or sections. Since corpus

has large data, researcher can examine the frequency of the word occurrence in

corpus. Biber et al. (2002) say,

“one use

of frequency list is to compare the

frequency of a target words to other words

”

(p. 29). Hunston (2002) defines that a

frequency list is simply a list of all the types in a corpus together with the

occurrences of each type (p. 67). The list can be shown in any different kinds such

as frequency order, alphabetical order, and the first occurrences of the type in the

corpus. Moreover, Hunston (2002) mentions that the frequency list from corpora

can be useful for identifying possible differences between the corpora that can then

be studied in more details (p. 5).

which common subordinator is used in English. Furthermore, using online corpus

like COCA gives an automatic list of word and shows the number of occurrences

frequency of certain words.

c.

Corpus Studys with a Grammatical Focus

A corpus study in this research concerns in the grammatical focus since the

researcher examines the clause pattern that appears after

since

and

because

as

subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason in COCA. Kaplan (2010)

states,

“a

ppliying corpus-based analysis to show how grammatical feature can be

described for structural characteristic as well as pattern of use across spoken and

written registers”

(p. 554). Using corpus study to analyze grammatical construction

is very useful. According to Biber (2002), there might be an association between

the words and their grammatical environment which is called lexico-grammatical

associations. Lexico-grammatical analysis can be used for attempting to distinguish

between the words or the structure that are nearly synonymous in meaning.

Therefore, the researcher can distinguish two nearly synonymous words by

considering their association with different grammatical construction or different

word classes (p. 84).

d.

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)

among spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. It

includes 20 million words each year from 1900

–

2012.

COCA allows the users to easily limit the searches through frequency and

compare the frequency of words, phrases, and grammatical construction, at least in

two main ways:

a.

By genre: comparisons between spoken, fiction, popular magazines,

newspapers, and academic, or even between sub-genres, such as movie

scripts, newspaper editorial, or scientific journals.

b.

Over time: compare different years from 1990 to the present time

(Davies, n.d.).

By using COCA, the users can easily carry out semantically-based queries

of the corpus like to identify the contrast and the comparison of the collocations of

two related words in order to determine the differences in the meaning or the use

between the words. Moreover, the users can identify the frequency and the

distribution of synonyms for nearly 60,000 words and also compare their frequency

in different genres, and also use these word lists as a part of other queries.

2.

Semantics Approach

(1981) says that conceptual/denotative/cognitive meaning is the central factor in

linguistic communication.

a.

The Etymology of

Since

and

Because

The word

since and

because

have their origin meaning. According to the

Online Etymology Dictionary, the word since belongs into two word classes which

are adverb and conjunction

(“Since”)

.

Online Etymology Dictionary shows that

since as an adverb came in early fifteenth century from the word synnes in which

sithen

is the original meaning

(“Since”)

. Furthermore, the word

since as a

conjunction came from the late fourteenth century while since as a preposition came

from 1510s

(“Since”)

.

On the other hand, the dictionary reveals that the original word of because

is bi cause

“by cause” which appeared in 1300

(“Because”)

. Because is originally

a phrase often followed by a subordinate clause. Based on the

Online Etymology

Dictionary,

because

is clipped from

cause

attested in writing in the middle of

fifteenth century

(“Because”)

. Since and because in the original meaning implies

that they have the function as a subordinator.

b.

Definitions of

Since

and

Because

The researcher uses three dictionaries to see the definition of

since

and

because.

The first dictionary is

Merriam-Webster Dictionary online version, the

second one is Macquarie Dictionary online version, and the third one is Longman

Language Activator.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary online version, since as an adverb has three meanings which

are from a past time until now, after a time in the past, and before the present time

(“Since”). As well as

Merriam-Webster Dictionary online version,

Macquarie

Dictionary defines since as an adverb means from then till now (often preceded by

ever);

between a particular past time and the present, for instance,

he at first

refused, but has since consented; ago or before now

(“Since”).

Since as an adverb

means

from a past time until now, for instance,

Lily has stayed there ever since.

Since

as an adverb can be defined

after a time in the past, for instance,

James

graduated two years ago, and has since worked in mining industry. The last

definition of

since as an adverb is

before the present time, for instance,

I’ve long

since went to Italy. Longman Language Activator states that since is followed by a

particular time or event in the past (“Since”).

Since usually collocates with the word

ever in ever since. Ever since means for the whole of a long period of time since a

particular time or event, for instance, ever since I can remem

ber, I’ve wanted to be

a dancer.

In spite of since as an adverb, since also belongs to conjunction.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary online version defines that since as a conjunction of time means

in the period after the time when, or from the time in the past, for instance, he has

worked there, since he graduated

(“Since”).

modifying adverbial phrase is the reduction of an adverb clause which modifies the

subject of main clause. Cambridge Dictionaries online explains that using since +

-ing form refers to the time when the subject of the verb is the same as the main

clause and the subordinate clause, for example,

since leaving school (since he left

school), he has had three or four temporary jobs

(“Since”).

The next meaning of since

in Macquarie Dictionary online is because, for

instance,

since you’ve asked, I’ll tell you

(“Since”)

. Meanwhile,

since

as a

conjunction in adverbial clause of reason is used to introduce a statement that

explains the reason for another statement, for example, since it rains outside, the

children play inside. Based on Language Activator, since is used to introduce the

reason why a particular situation exists, why someone decides to do something, or

suggests doing something (“Since”).

On the contrary, the meaning of since as a preposition is in the time after (a

specified time or event in the past) or

from (a point in the past) until the present

time, for example, Lisa has been here since yesterday.

This research also uses those three dictionaries to see the definition of

because. According to

Merriam-Webster Dictionary online version

because

belongs to conjunction (“Because”).

Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines because

because of

is followed by a phrase which means

by reason of or

on account of

(“Because”). For example,

the game was abandoned because of rain.

In addition, Longman Language Activator states that because is the words

used when you are explaining why something happened or why you did something

(“Because”).

For example,

because Karen didn’t enjoy her job, she decided to leave

her job. Beside the word because, there are the other words used to explaine why

something happened or why you did something. They are

the reason …

. is that,

because of, since, as, through, thanks to, out of, on account of, as a result of, due

to, owing to,

and

seeing as.

The dictionary states that the word

because

usually

collocates with just in just because which means when you think an explanation is

not a good enough reason for something

(“Because”)

. For instance, You mean you

dumped him just because he forgot your birthday?

The word

because

also

collocates with the word simply, for instance,

We’re not going on holiday this year,

simply because we can afford it.

According to

Longman

Language Activator,

simply because

means

when there is a very simple reason for something

(“Because”)

.

There are some common errors in the use of

because

in reality. Take for

instance to the examples.

(1) My reason for buying the car was because it was too cheap.

(2) My reason for buying the car was that it was too cheap.

dictionaries used in this study, the word

because

is used as a subordinating

conjunction in a sentence to explain the reason following the main clause.

3.

Conjunctions

Roberts (1964) defines,

“conjunctions are words that join sentences or part

of sentence” (p. 285).

Besides that, Finch (2005) says

“a conjunctio

n is a linking

word whose main function is to connect words or other constructions together” (p.

86). Finch adds that conjunctions typically serve as hinges to combine together two

units which can be a noun and a noun, a verb and a verb, an adjective and an

adjective (tea or coffee, sing and dance, expensive but reasonable), or two clauses

(I die or you leave). There are two kinds of conjunctions which are coordinating

(e.g. and, but, and or) and subordinating (e.g. if, when, because, since). According

to Finegan (2004), the function of coordinating conjunction such as

and, but, and

or is to conjoin expression of the same category or status (p. 46).

conjunction elaborates a requirement that has to be fulfilled for the action in the

main clause to be accomplished. According to Bloor and Bloor (2004), a clause

which begins with binding conjunctions or subordinating conjunctions may

generally follow or precede clause to which it is bound. In this study, the researcher

would investigate the clause pattern with

since

and

because

as subordinating

conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason in COCA.

4.

Clause

Basically, most people already know the word sentence. However, sentence

is a unit of written; it does not apply to spoken language (Gerot & Wignell, 1994,

p. 82). Gerot and Wignell (1994) add that in spoken language, people speak in

messages, which are realized grammatically in clauses and clause complexes.

Hence, clause is equally applicable to spoken and written language.

a.

Main Clause

According to Miller (2002), some sentences in texts consist of a single main

clause, but many sentences consist of several clauses. Depending on what types of

clause are combined, two types of multi-clause sentence are distinguished.

Downing and Locke (2002) say that the compound sentence, consisting of two

independent clauses, linked in a relationship of coordination. Compound sentences

consist of two or more clauses joined by the coordinator conjunctions. Take for

instance to these following sentences:

In (1), the clauses

I wrote to her

and

she wrote to me

are conjoined by

conjunction

and. It also occurs in (2) and (3), the clauses in each sentence are

conjoined by conjunction but and or. Based on the examples (1), (2), and (3), the

conjoined clauses are all main clauses. In the main clauses, they consist of one

independent clause which can potentially stands alone and are not structurally

dependent on another clause (Downing & Locke, 2002; Lock, 1996).

b. Subordinate Clause

Subordinate clause can be conjoined with other clauses. Miller (2002) states

that a complex sentence consists of a main clause and one or more other clauses

subordinate to it. Downing and Locke (2002) say that the complex sentence consists

of one independent clause and one dependent clause. Based on Cramer et al. (1984),

a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand alone as a

sentence. A dependent clause needs an independent clause to make sense. Cramer

et al. (1984) adds that the dependent clause are signaled by subordinating

conjunctions. The sentence in (1) is the example of a complex sentence.

(1) When I tumble in gym, I improve my condition.

Complement clauses or noun clauses modify verbs and nouns. According to

Miller (2002), complement clause reflects the relationship between the clauses and

the verb/noun of the main clause. Here are the examples of sentences with

complement clause.

(1)

Elizabeth regretted that she did not study last night.

(2)

That

I didn’t come to my home last night

worried my parents.

(3)

Fiona was delighted by the news that she passed the exam well.

In sentences (1) and (2), the complement clauses modify the verb.

Complement clause can occur on the right of the verb in the main clause (1), or on

the left of the verb as in (2). In sentence (3), the complement clause modifies the

noun. Hence, the function of complement clause is to fill out the meaning of the

word (Miller, 2002).

The next clause is relative clause. Relative clauses or also known as

adjective clauses modify nouns and have their complementiser as a WH word or

that or zero (Miller, 2002, p. 69). Miller (2002) states that relative clause is different

from complement clause, without a WH complementiser, they lack of subject or

object. Take for instance to the sentences given:

(1)

The man who stands there is my brother.

(2)

I like the book which you gave me.

(3)

The bike that you stole was mine.

The subordinate clause is introduced by WH words such as

who, which,

where, or by prepositional phrases such as

in which. In sentence (1), the relative

clause who stands there modifies the noun man as in sentences (2) and (3).

subordinators because and since. Miller (2002) finds that adverbial clauses modify

the whole clauses. Miller (2002) explains that the adverbial clauses are adjuncts,

since they are typically optional constituent in sentences. Based on Miller (2002),

adverbial clauses are traditionally classified according to their meaning, for

example adverbial clause of time, concession, manner, condition, or reason (p. 65).

Adverbial clause of time gives the time in which another event happened.

Here is the example of adverbial clause.

(1)

Several guest arrived before we were ready.

Before we were ready gives the time at which another event happened. It modifies

the main clause

several guest arrived.

Warriner (1982) gives the subordinating

conjunctions that introduce clauses expressing a time relationship between the idea

in the subordinate clause and the idea in the independent/main clause such as after,

before, until, whenever, as, since, when, or while (p. 211).

The adverbial clause of concession conveys a concession or expressing

contrast (Azar, 1999, p. 363; Miller, 2002, p. 65). The following sentence is the

example of adverbial clause.

(1)

Even though the weather was so hot, she was wearing a sweater.

The adverbial clause of concession in even though the weather was so hot

gives concession. It modifies the main clause

she was wearing a sweater.

Azar

(1999) mentions that subordinate conjunctions which introduce adverbial clause of

concession or contrast are like even though, although, or though (p. 359).

(1)

Henry changed his plans as the mood took him.

The adverbial clause of manner in (1) as the mood took him describes the manner

and modifies the main clause Henry changed his plans (Miller, 2002).

Another clause is the adverbial clause of condition. The function is to convey

the circumstances or condition under which a particular situation would have arisen.

Take for instance to this sentence:

(1)

If you pass the examination, you will pass the course.

The adverbial clause in (1)

if you pass the examination

states under what

condition in the main clause

you will pass the course. Warriner (1982) concludes

that the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of condition states the

condition or conditions under which the idea in the independent clause is true (p.

212).

The last one that Miller (2002) mentions is the adverbial clause of reason. It

also modifies the independent clause like the other adverbial clauses. Warriner

(1982) says that the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason have

a function to introduce clauses expressing the cause/reason or the idea expressed in

the independent clause. Take for instance to the examples given:

(1)

We stopped because the light was red.

(2)

Because Andy needed to sleep, he went to bed earlier.

(3)

She moved to the other town

since she didn’t get any job here

.

(4)

Since you’re the chef

, you should cook the dinner.

adverbial clause of reason are as, since, because, whereas, or now that (Azar, 1993;

Warriner, 1982).

Miller (2002) concludes that all subordinator clauses can occur in any verbs

in the main clause. Hence, they are treated as an adjuncts in the sentence. Miller

(2002) adds that subordinator clause can also be conjoined like conjoined clause as

in the following sentence.

(1)

It was Kate who married the prince but who rejected his first proposal.

Sentence (1) is known as compound-complex sentence which contains two relative

clauses conjoined by but.

c.

Elliptical Clause

In an independent clause, there is non-elliptical and elliptical clause. Gerot

and Wignell (1994) say,

“elliptical clause had bits ‘ellipsed’, that is, left out” (p.

85). The bits are part of the accompanying text. Gerot and Wignell (1994) adds that

these bits are recoverable from the accompanying text. Take for instance to these

examples.

Non-Elliptical

Elliptical

Who is the winner?

Are they having party?

Why do you go to bed early?

Sidney (is the winner)

Yes (they are having party)

(I go to bed early) because I am sleepy

In the elliptical examples, it must be easily known that Sidney is the winner, because

is the winner is recoverable from the accompanying text.

5.

Basic Sentence

A sentence must be complete which means the sentence stands alone without being

included in some larger unit. Take for instance to the sentences:

(1)

I made a milkshake.

(2)

Despite the fact that Angus often has very perceptive little insights into

how things really work in this world, he really doesn’t have a clue.

Those examples are sentences because they can stand alone as a grammatical unit.

In this part, the researcher would like to discuss the detailed discussion of major

sentences.

a.

Subject

A sentence or a clause needs a subject. According to Lester (1990), the

subject of the sentence is the part about which something is being said (p. 73).

Greenbaum (1999) explains that subject can be identified by some characteristics:

1)

Subject normally comes before a verb in declaratives, but in questions it comes

after the operator. If who or what is the subject, the subject comes before the

verb in declaratives. Take for instance to the examples.

a.

They (S) took (V) the chance.

b.

Did (op) they (S) take (V) the chance?

c.

Who (S) took (V) the chance?

2)

The subject is normally absent in imperatives:

a.

Close (V) the door!

3)

Most verbs in the present tense have a distinctive form ending in

–

s when the

subject is singular. It refers to something or someone other than the speaker or

the person or persons being addressed:

4)

Some pronouns (I, you, she, he, and they) have a distinctive form when they

are functioned as subject of the sentence.

a.

He (S) likes apple.

b.

You (S) like apple.

5)

The subject decides the form of reflexive pronouns that appear later in the

sentence:

a.

I (S) hurt myself badly.

b.

You (S) hurt yourself badly.

6)

When an active sentence is turned into a passive sentence, the subject becomes

the agent of passive sentence.

ACTIVE: The audience (S) gave standing ovation to John Legend.

PASSIVE: John Legend (S) was given standing ovation by the audience.

Subject is typically a noun phrase. However, Lock (1996) mentions that

certain kinds of clauses can also be a subject such as that clauses, wh- clauses,

to infinitive phrase and Ving phrase. For example:

a.

That the school gave punishment to the students is included in the school

policy.(that clause)

b.

What he did it is a terrible mistake. (wh- clause).

c.

To finish the whole thing will take a weak at least. (to infinitive clause).

d.

Doing this aspect of grammar is an easy thing. (Ving clause).

b.

Predicate

verb patterns or basic clause pattern, it will be helpful to understand the core

structure of most clauses. They are as follows:

1)

Subject-Linking Verb-Subject Complement (S-LV-SC)

A linking verb (LV) needs a subject complement (SC) to complete the

sentence. According to Greenbaum (1989), if a verb requires a subject complement

to complete the sentence, the verb is a linking verb. Leech and Svartvik (1994) add

that a linking verb has a function to link together the subject and the complement.

The subject complement typically identifies the person or the thing denoted by the

subject. The most common linking verb is be.

According to Leech and Svartvik (1994), among other linking verbs there

are two kinds of linking verb which are current linking verbs and resulting linking

verbs. Current linking verbs (such as appear, feel, look, remain, seem) are like be

in that they indicate a state. On the other hand, resulting linking verbs, such as

become, get, turn, and grow, indicate that the role of the verb complement is a result

of the event or process described in the verb (Leech & Svartvik, 1994). Take for

instance to the sentences.

a.

This movie is boring.

b.

The wine tastes so terrible.

c.

Why did they get so angry?

d.

The result is that everybody passed the examination.

e.

She seems (to be) more adult now.

f.

I’d like to be in my hometown for a few weeks.

2)

Subject-Verb intransitive-(Adverbial) (S-Vi (+adv))

In this pattern, the subject and the verb occur without an object or a

complement. Verbs which have no object or complement are called intransitive

verbs (Leech & Svartvik, 1994). Intransitive verbs can be followed by an optional

element which is an adverbial. Greenbaum (1989) explains that adverbials convey

a range of information about the situation depicted in the basic structure. Take for

instance to the examples.

a.

I agree.

b.

The baby is crying.

c.

She will go this evening.

3)

Subject-Verb-Adverbial (Complement) (S-V-A)

Sometimes, a sentence/a clause is not complete without an adverbial

complement. Some verbs need an adverbial complement to finish the sentence/the

clause. There is no name of the set of verbs that require an adverbial complement

because there is no traditional name for it. Greenbaum (1989) states that adverbial

complements in this pattern usually refer to location or direction. Here are the

example of this pattern.

a.

This path goes to an old cemetery.

b.

She is staying in Abu Dhabi.

c.

Jane is getting into his car.

4)

Subject-Verb transitive-Direct Object (S-Vt-dO)

also explains that a direct object (dO) refers to a person or thing directly affected

by the action described in the sentence. Leech and Svartvik (1994) defines that thr

direct object comes from certain forms. The object can be a noun phrase, an

infinitive, an -ing form, a that-clause, or a wh-clause. Here are the examples of this

pattern:

a.

He takes her out.

b.

Olivia Pope decided to leave.

c.

I enjoyed teaching young learners.

d.

The policeman found that she was guilty in the bribery case.

5)

Subject-Verb transitive-Indirect Object-Direct Object (S-V-iO-dO)

It could be seen that a transitive verb requires a direct object to complete the

sentence. It can be found that sometimes, a clause pattern has two objects. The two

objects are an indirect object followed by a direct object. According to Greenbaum

(1989), the indirect object refers to a person indirectly affected by the action

described in the sentence (p. 43). The indirect object tells to whom or for whom the

action of the verb is done. Lester (1990) says that an indirect object can be

recognized by paraphrasing the sentence with to or for. The two objects come from

various forms. Both objects can be noun phrase + noun phrase, noun phrase +

that-clause, and object + wh-clause. Take for instance to the examples of this pattern:

a.

Leah give him a jar cake.

b.

Her mother told us that she went to beach.

c.

The police asked John why he has killed his own father.

6)

Subject

–

Verb-Direct Object-Object Complement (S-V-dO-OC)

complement is related to the direct object. The object complement usually appears

after the direct object. Take for instance to the following sentences:

a.

I named my puppy Jane.

b.

The architect designed this building like skyscraper.

c.

I park my bike outside the house.

d.

We got the machine working.

B. Theoritical Framework

Besides, the researcher specified the analysis of

since

and

because

as

subordinating conjunctions. Theories of dictionary meanings will be used to specify

the analysis. Merriam-Webster Dictionary online version, Macquarie Dictionary in

online version, and Longman Language Activator reveal that since belongs to three

word classes which are adverb, conjunction, and preposition

(“Since”). The

researcher will classify since using the definition defined by those dictionaries to

collect since as a subordinating conjunction in adverbial clause of reason. As well

as

since, the researcher refers to those three dictionaries to get

because

as a

subordinating conjunction in adverbial clause of reason. Based on the definitions

stated by the three dictionaries, because as a conjunction means for the reason that

or

due to the fact that

(“Because”)

. By using the definition from the dictionaries,

the researcher will analyze the frequency and the clause pattern of

since

and

because as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason.

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A Corpus-based analysis of subordinating conjunctions since and because in adverbial clause of reason.

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