vii ABSTRACT
Atmaka, Stanislaus Febri (2009). Discrimination within Afro-American Community in the United States in 1960s – 1970s as Depicted in Toni Morrison’s Paradise. Yogyakarta: Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Department of Language and Arts Education, English Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
This thesis deals with discrimination within Afro-American Community in the United States in 1960s – 1970s as depicted in Toni Morrison’s Paradise. Ruby is an Afro American community that has isolated themselves to avoid discrimination from white people. This situation changes when one family, the Morgans, dominates the community. Discrimination happens everywhere since there is no equality within a community.
In this thesis, there is one problem formulation that is how Toni Morrison depicts discrimination within an Afro-American community in the United States in 1960s - 1970s. In order to focus on the major topic deeper, the problem was divided into two sub divisions. The first one is the structure of Afro American Community in 1960s. Second is the fundamental problem why discrimination happens within Afro-American community.
To achieve the objectives of the study, the method used in this study is library research was used to gather the data. There were two kinds of sources that were used in this thesis. The primary source was obtained from the novel itself, Paradise. The secondary source was obtained from the books related to the theories and also history of Afro American people. The sociocultural-historical approach was applied in this study to get a clear picture of Afro American’s way of life consisted of culture, religion, and system of their community especially in 1960s-1970s. The information was important to reveal the life events developed in the novel. The theories were needed to analyze the social phenomenon happen within Afro American community which enabled discrimination.
The result of this study shows that discrimination happens because there is inequality within Afro American community. Ruby community is a picture of Afro American community. The system of stratification, class and power distribution legalize the inequality within Ruby community. Since the Morgans have all of the things, becomes the upper class family, has most of the assets in Ruby, and holds the power towards Ruby community, their domination is not stoppable. The Morgans as the most influential family becomes the main problem of discrimination that happens within Ruby community. Equality becomes the fundamental thing to erase discrimination within a community.
viii ABSTRAK
Atmaka, Stanislaus Febri (2009). Discrimination within Afro-American Community in the United States in 1960’s –1970’s as Depicted in Toni Morrison’s Paradise. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Jurusan Bahasa dan Seni, Program Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Skripsi ini berhubungan dengan diskriminasi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika in Amerika Serikat pada tahun 1960an-1970an sesuai dengan apa yang digambarkan di dalam novel karangan Toni Morrison yang berjudul Paradise. Ruby adalah sebuah komunitas orang Afro American yang mengisolasi diri untuk menghindari diskriminasi dari orang kulit putih. Situasi ini berubah ketika salah satu keluarga yaitu keluarga Morgan mendominasi komunitas ini. Diskriminasi terjadi dimanapun juga karena tidak adanya kesetaraan di dalam komunitas tesebut.
Di dalam skripsi ini, ada satu pertanyaan yaitu tentang bagaimana Toni Morrison menggambarkan diskriminasi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika di Amerika Serikat pada tahun 1960an-1970an. Agar fokus kepada pokok bahasan utama mendalam, pertanyaan itu dibagi menjadi dua pokok pertanyaan. Yang pertama adalah struktur dari komunitas Afro Amerika di tahun 1960an. Kedua adalah masalah dasar mengapa terjadi diskriminasi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika.
Untuk mencapai tujuan dari skripsi ini, digunakan metode studi pustaka untuk mengumpulkan data-data. Ada dua sumber yang akan digunakan dalam skripsi ini. Sumber utama diambil dari novel itu sendiri yang berjudul Paradise. Sumber kedua diambil dari buku-buku yang terkait dengan teori sekaligus sejarah tentang orang-orang Afro Amerika. Pendekatan sosial kebudayaan dan sejarah diimplementasikan di dalam skripsi ini dengan tujuan untuk mendapatkan gambaran jelas tentang cara hidup orang-orang Afro American yang terdiri dari budaya, agama, dan sistem dari komunitas Afro Amerika khususnya pada tahun 1960an-1970an. Informasi ini penting untuk menganalisa fenomena sosial yang terjadi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika yang memungkinkan terjadinya diskriminasi.
ix
i
DISCRIMINATION WITHIN AN AFRO-AMERICAN COMMUNITY IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1960s - 1970s
AS DEPICTED IN TONI MORRISON’S PARADISE
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Stanislaus Febri Atmaka
Student Number: 031214128
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
vi
DEDICATION PAGE
This thesis is dedicated to;
My mother, father, little brother, lover, best friends and myself
Ask, and it shall be given to you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it
shall be opened unto you: for every one that asketh receiveth; and he
that seeketh findeth; and to him that knocketh it shall be opened.
(Matthew 7 : 7-8)
Whosoever will be great among you, shall be your minister:
and whosoever of you will be the chiefest, shall be servant of
all. For even the Son of man came not to be ministered unto,
but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
(Mark 10 : 43-45)
Love your enemies, do good to them which hate you, bless them that
curse you, and pray for them which despitefully use you. And unto him
that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other; and him that
taketh away thy cloak forbid not to take thy coat also. Give to every man
that asketh of thee; and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not
again. And as ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them
likewise.
(Luke 6 : 27-31)
vii ABSTRACT
Atmaka, Stanislaus Febri (2009). Discrimination within Afro-American Community in the United States in 1960s – 1970s as Depicted in Toni Morrison’s Paradise. Yogyakarta: Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Department of Language and Arts Education, English Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
This thesis deals with discrimination within Afro-American Community in the United States in 1960s – 1970s as depicted in Toni Morrison’s Paradise. Ruby is an Afro American community that has isolated themselves to avoid discrimination from white people. This situation changes when one family, the Morgans, dominates the community. Discrimination happens everywhere since there is no equality within a community.
In this thesis, there is one problem formulation that is how Toni Morrison depicts discrimination within an Afro-American community in the United States in 1960s - 1970s. In order to focus on the major topic deeper, the problem was divided into two sub divisions. The first one is the structure of Afro American Community in 1960s. Second is the fundamental problem why discrimination happens within Afro-American community.
To achieve the objectives of the study, the method used in this study is library research was used to gather the data. There were two kinds of sources that were used in this thesis. The primary source was obtained from the novel itself, Paradise. The secondary source was obtained from the books related to the theories and also history of Afro American people. The sociocultural-historical approach was applied in this study to get a clear picture of Afro American’s way of life consisted of culture, religion, and system of their community especially in 1960s-1970s. The information was important to reveal the life events developed in the novel. The theories were needed to analyze the social phenomenon happen within Afro American community which enabled discrimination.
The result of this study shows that discrimination happens because there is inequality within Afro American community. Ruby community is a picture of Afro American community. The system of stratification, class and power distribution legalize the inequality within Ruby community. Since the Morgans have all of the things, becomes the upper class family, has most of the assets in Ruby, and holds the power towards Ruby community, their domination is not stoppable. The Morgans as the most influential family becomes the main problem of discrimination that happens within Ruby community. Equality becomes the fundamental thing to erase discrimination within a community.
viii ABSTRAK
Atmaka, Stanislaus Febri (2009). Discrimination within Afro-American Community in the United States in 1960’s –1970’s as Depicted in Toni Morrison’s Paradise. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Jurusan Bahasa dan Seni, Program Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Skripsi ini berhubungan dengan diskriminasi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika in Amerika Serikat pada tahun 1960an-1970an sesuai dengan apa yang digambarkan di dalam novel karangan Toni Morrison yang berjudul Paradise. Ruby adalah sebuah komunitas orang Afro American yang mengisolasi diri untuk menghindari diskriminasi dari orang kulit putih. Situasi ini berubah ketika salah satu keluarga yaitu keluarga Morgan mendominasi komunitas ini. Diskriminasi terjadi dimanapun juga karena tidak adanya kesetaraan di dalam komunitas tesebut.
Di dalam skripsi ini, ada satu pertanyaan yaitu tentang bagaimana Toni Morrison menggambarkan diskriminasi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika di Amerika Serikat pada tahun 1960an-1970an. Agar fokus kepada pokok bahasan utama mendalam, pertanyaan itu dibagi menjadi dua pokok pertanyaan. Yang pertama adalah struktur dari komunitas Afro Amerika di tahun 1960an. Kedua adalah masalah dasar mengapa terjadi diskriminasi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika.
Untuk mencapai tujuan dari skripsi ini, digunakan metode studi pustaka untuk mengumpulkan data-data. Ada dua sumber yang akan digunakan dalam skripsi ini. Sumber utama diambil dari novel itu sendiri yang berjudul Paradise. Sumber kedua diambil dari buku-buku yang terkait dengan teori sekaligus sejarah tentang orang-orang Afro Amerika. Pendekatan sosial kebudayaan dan sejarah diimplementasikan di dalam skripsi ini dengan tujuan untuk mendapatkan gambaran jelas tentang cara hidup orang-orang Afro American yang terdiri dari budaya, agama, dan sistem dari komunitas Afro Amerika khususnya pada tahun 1960an-1970an. Informasi ini penting untuk menganalisa fenomena sosial yang terjadi di dalam komunitas Afro Amerika yang memungkinkan terjadinya diskriminasi.
ix
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to thank Jesus Christ, my Lord for His guidance and blessing to me so I can finish this thesis. Without Him I would never have
finished this thesis. What I always believe is that He always lives in my heart until
the end of my life.
My greatest gratitude goes to my parents, my beloved father, Markus
Suwondo, A.Ma.Pd. and my loving mother, Yosepha Maria Eni Dwiningsih,
S.Pd. I would like to thank them for everything they give to me: love, prayer,
patience, and support. I really appreciate the life they have given to me and I will
try as best as I can to make them happy and proud of me. They are the reason for
me to be a better person day by day. I also would like to thank to my little brother,
Yoannes de Ketty Rio Krismanuraga for his support and attention.
My next gratitude goes to my major sponsor Henny Herawati, S.Pd.,
M.Hum. and my co-sponsor Drs. L. Bambang Hendarto Y., M. Hum. for their
help, patience, suggestion and encouragement so I can finally finish my thesis. To
all lecturers of English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University, I would also like to thank them for the time they taught and gave me
knowledge. I wish God always bless them.
There are also my great friends I would like to thank. They are: Nina
Setyorini, Priska Fitri Yuaningtyas, Upik, Putri, Qyer, Dono, Satrio “Ji’i”
Nugroho, Ozzie, Tika, Nina “Ndut”, Andriana “Koki” Wahyu Saputra, Tri
xi
Experimentum 1998 Seminari Menengah Mertoyudan “Here I am Lord!”, Bondan, Sony, Ernawati, Daru Pintoko, Mudika Aloysius Gonzaga “The AlGonzAholic
Lovers” for their friendship and care. I would like to thank them for coloring my
life. I hope we always keep our friendship until the end of our life. My special
thank goes to my beloved one, drh. Yovita Andriana Eva Kristanti. I would
like to thank her for her love, patience, care and support. I thank her for her
unending love. My gratitude also goes to other PBI students year 2003 that I
cannot mention one by one.
Last but not least, I thank those who have supported and encouraged me to
finish this thesis. May God bless all of them.
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE OF PAGE ………..….… i
PAGES OF APPOVAL ……… ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……….. iv
LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ………. v
DEDICATION PAGE ……….. vi
ABSTACT ………. vii
ABSTRAK ……….. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………. x
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………. xii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ………... 1
B. Problem Formulation ……… 3
C. Objective of the Study ……….. 3
D. Benefits of the Study ………..………….………. 4
E. Definition of Terms ………... 4
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Review ……….. 7
1. Critical Approaches ……….. 7
2. Theory of Social Class ……….. 9
a. History ……….. 9
b. Aristotle’s Theory of Class………. 10
c. Karl Marx’s Theory of Social Classes ……….. 12
3. Power and Status Relations ………... 14
4. Theory of Stratification ………. 18
xiii
c. Problem of Denominations and Uneducated Preachers … 33 C. Theoretical Framework ………. 34
1. The Picture of Puritan Afro American Community ………. 41
2. The Role of Preachers in Afro American Community …….. 44
3. Living in Isolation ……… 47
B. The Fundamental Reasons of Discrimination within Afro American Community ……… 50
1. Stratification within Afro American Community …………. 51
a. The Morgan Family as the Upper Class Family ………... 52
b. The Hierarchical System of Afro American Church …… 54
2. Class System in Ruby Community ……… 56
xiv
b. Ruby as an “Oligarchical” Community ……… 58
c. Morgan Family as the Ruling Class Family ………. 60
3. Power and Status Relations of Morgan Family……….. 62
a. Morgan Family Domination ………. 63
b. The Twins as the Most Influential Persons in Ruby ……. 69
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusion ………. 76
B. Suggestions ………...…. 78
1. Suggestion for Future Researcher(s) ………. 78
2. Suggestion for Teaching Intensive Reading II .……… 79
REFERENCES ……… 84
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In the introduction, the writer divides the chapter into five parts; they are:
background of the study, problem formulation, objective of the study, benefits of
the study, and definition of terms. Background of the study explains the reasons
why the writer chooses Paradise, a novel by Toni Morrison, to discuss. Problem
Formulation formulates the problems into a clear description in a form of
question. Objective of the Study states the purpose of writing this. It is also related
to the Benefits. Benefits reveal the advantages of this study for the students who
learn literature and also everyone who wants to study literature especially Toni
Morrison’s novels. The last part of this chapter, that is Definition of the terms, is
meant to avoid ambiguous interpretations of the terms used in the study.
A. Background of the Study
Social status, job position, gender, skin color differentiate between one
person and others. All of them, sometimes, bring problems in our social life. All
of the differences can put human in a serious and dangerous problem. Ideally, we
try to see this kind of differences as an opportunity for us to build our community
stronger. The fact is that there are still social frictions that happen because of
those differences, indeed. The differences cannot be avoided because they become
As a social creature, we need other people to live. A simple example that
we can take is that man needs woman and woman needs man. Both man and
woman need each other to fulfill their life. Yet in social life, sometimes, the role
of a woman is neglected. It is a fact that the positions of religious leader in the
world are held by men. Most people will think that it is not discrimination because
discrimination is thought to be bad and cruel. If we go deeper in that case, we can
say that it is discrimination in the base of gender discrimination.
There is a lot of discrimination in the world and it will always happen.
Discrimination becomes our social problem since it produces friction in our social
life. A Nobel Prize Winner, Toni Morrison’s Paradise, is one of her novels that
was written in order to reveal to readers social problems, especially
discrimination, which happened within an Afro-American community in the
United States in 1960s - 1970s. Toni Morrison titles her novel Paradise although
the situation is not the same as what we think about “paradise”. She creates a
community of black families named Ruby. Ruby is a town that is built consists of
eight family names; the eight rocks. The eight rocks is the founder of Ruby. This
community tries to build a community which gives a better life to them since they
have been slaves for many years. At the beginning, they create an ideal social life.
They together build the town from generation to generation. The situation changes
when one of the family founders tries to dominate. One of the family founders
does the discrimination within the community of Ruby.
Discrimination between the Blacks and the Whites is an old song.
there are only several people discussing about it. That is the situation that Toni
Morrison wants to tell through her novel Paradise.
This new point of view is the reason why the writer is interested in
discussing discrimination within an Afro-American community in the United
States in 1960s - 1970s as depicted in Toni Morrison’s Paradise. Paradise gives
the reader a critical point of view towards discrimination in the United States that
we can use as reflection materials we can bring in our daily life situation.
Discrimination is still an actual problem to discuss and learnt because it can
happen now or later.
B. Problem Formulation
Since the topic consists of several aspects, the writer formulates the
problem into one question, that is:
How does Toni Morrison depict discrimination within an Afro-American
community in the United States in 1960s - 1970s?
C. Objective of the Study
The objective of this study is, of course, to answer the problem as the
general objective of this study. In order to focus on the major topic deeper, the
writer divides the general objective into two specific objectives. The first one is to
reveal the structure of an Afro-American Community in 1960s. It provides
the discrimination. The second one is to reveal the fundamental problem why
discrimination happens within the Afro-American community.
D. Benefits of the Study
This thesis provides a reader with clear information about discrimination
within an Afro-American community in the United States in 1960s - 1970s based
on what is revealed in Paradise. Thus, this thesis is beneficial for those who study
literature; students and lecturers. Many things in this novel are interesting to
discuss. Discussion method will develop students’ critical thinking; moreover the value of this discussion will bring the students to get in touch with their social life
and give them new point of view towards their social life.
As we know, Paradise is not just a novel that gives the readers enjoyment
of reading. Moreover, it gives the reader new point of views, enlightments or may
be references for reflection of their social life. Thus, this thesis is beneficial for
those who are interested in social life especially in social problem. Since Paradise
is a historical novel, it means that it portrays the real events happening in the
United States in 1960s - 1970s. It is also beneficial for those who are studying
American history.
E. Definition of Terms
In order to avoid misunderstanding of the content of this thesis, there are
three terms that must be clearly defined. The terms that must be clearly defined
1. Discrimination
The terms of discrimination, based on the Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English (508), is the practice of treating one particular group in
society in an unfair way. Banton says that it is not possible to determine that an
action is discriminatory without indicating the basis of the differential treatment
(Banton 19).
Since there are some definitions about discrimination, the writer defines
discrimination as the practice of treating one particular group or person in society
in an unfair way in this case in front of the law that was made by a group of
people based on an agreement among them. Paradise portrays the discrimination
that happens within an Afro American community in a small town named Ruby.
One family name that is the Morgan family treats the other families in an unfair
way in the basis of the law that was made by the community of Ruby itself.
2. The Afro-American
According to the The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (53)
the Afro American refers to a black American person. In this study, the writer
specify the term of the Afro American. Thus the Afro American here refers to the
Blacks American people who live in America because of slavery trading. They
live in a community of black people and after the slavery era, they try to maintain
3. The Caste System
Here, the caste system refers to the rule of blood that was maintained by
the Blacks and the Whites in order to protect them from intermarriage. This
system was implemented by the Whites to emphasize the inferiority of the Blacks.
The Whites said that all Negroes were alike and must be treated as the lower class
people. Myrdal uses this term in his book because the term “class” is liable to blur a significant distinction between the lower class and the upper class so, a term to
distinguish the large and systematic type of social differentiation from the small
7 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter includes theories and reviews on related literature that
support the analysis of the novel. It consists of the theoretical review, the
socio-historical background, and the theoretical framework. The theoretical review
consists of critical approach, theory of social class, power and status relations,
theory of stratification, and theory of discrimination. The sociocultural-historical
background consists of the Afro-American history after the slavery era in 1960s -
1970s, the American class and caste system, Negro community after the slavery,
classes in the Negro community, distribution of Afro American people, and
Afro-American Church. The theoretical framework will explain how the theories
mentioned answer the problem.
A. Theoretical Review
This part contains the literary theory related to the study. The theory is the
theory of critical approaches.
1. Critical Approaches
According to Rohrberger and Woods Jr in Reading and Writing about
Literature (Rohrberger and Woods Jr 3), there are five approaches that can be
biographical approach, the sociocultural-historical approach, the mythopoeic
approach, and the psychological approach.
The first approach is the formalist approach. It emphasizes on the total
integrity of the literary piece. It focuses on its esthetic value and through how
meaning is derived from structure and how matters of technique determine
structure (Rohrberger and Woods Jr 6)
The second one is the biographical approach. This is the approach in
which we consider the author‟s background to appreciate his work of literature. It
insists that a work of art is a reflection of personality; therefore, it is necessary to
appreciate the ideas and personality of the author to an understanding of the
literary object. The basis of writing the literary work is the knowledge and sources
about the author (Rohrberger and Woods Jr 8).
The third one is the sociocultural-historical approach. It insists that the
attitudes and the actions are the “subject matter” of the literature. The critics are
required to pay attention to the social environment in which the work of literature
is written and to its influence towards the work of literature (Rohrberger and
Woods Jr 9).
The fourth one is the mythopoeic approach. It seeks to discover
universally repeated structures are structures that found first expression in ancient
myths and folk rites and they are so basic to human thought that they have
meaning to all men (Rohrberger and Woods Jr 11).
The last one is the psychological approach. This approach pays attention to
point of view, namely psychological theories. This approach leads to the
exploration of the unconscious area of the human mind, which led to the
conclusion that it was this area that was wellspring of man rich imagination, his
capacity for creation and the complexity of his thought, behavior, and that the
contents of this region of the mind found expression in symbolic words, thoughts
and action (Rohrberger and Woods Jr 13)
2. Theory of Social Class
Talking about social status, the division of social life, and stratification,
the first thing that we have to now is about social class. It is one of the
fundamental things that we have to know in order to get a clear picture of social
problem discussed.
a. History
It is difficult to define the word “class” because it occurs across a range of
disciplines – sociology, politics, cultural studies, and „literary criticism‟. Related
to the social analysis, in a broad term, the word „class‟ refers to divisions of
people in society.
The word class is from the Latin classis (plural classes). According to
Charlton Lewis and Charles Short, compilers of the Standard Latin Dictionary,
this term is variant of Calare, meaning to call out, proclaim, or summon a
gathering, either on land or water, while the second and most important, refers to
the divisions of the Roman people according to their estates and age.
The result of this division was the creation of two major groups in Roman
society, the patricians or aristocrats and the plebeians or commoners. The
codification of Roman law stipulated that while rich and poor were entitled to its
protection, a slave was not. As in Greek society, there was a clear division
between a free man and a slave.
In the seventeenth century, the word “class” entered into the English
language for the first time. In natural sciences, the word class refers to an equality
of different types of, say, plants or animals. Yet, it was not how it applied in social
description. The entry of “class” into the English language in the mid-seventeenth
century refers to a decisive moment in the development of capitalism. The
appearance of the word “class” is linked to fundamental changes in the economy
and to their effect on social relations. The new idiom of class is an expression of
social conflict.
b. Aristotle’s Theory of Class
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato
and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including
physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government,
ethics, biology and zoology. Aristotle has a point of view toward the
the very rich, secondly, the mean (middle class), and thirdly the very poor. These
three classes will determine whether a government built is good or bad.
Based on his opinion, the middle class is the best class who takes the rule.
He wrote:
…moderation and the mean are best and therefore it will clearly be best to possess the gifts of fortune in moderation; for in that condition of life men are most ready to follow rational principle. But he who greatly excels in beauty, strength, birth, or wealth, or on the other hand who is very poor, or very weak, or very much disgraced, finds it difficult to follow rational principle… Those who have too much of the goods of fortune, strength, wealth, friends and the like, are neither willing nor able to submit to authority. The evil begins at home; for when they are boys, by reason of the luxury in which they are brought up, they never learn, even at school, the habit of obedience. On the other hand, the very poor, who are in the opposite extreme, are too degraded. So that the one class cannot obey, and can only rule despotically; the other knows not how to command and must be ruled like slaves. (Aristotle 1)
The class that is in charge of ruling will build the characteristics of a
country and also a community. Aristotle wants to show that middle class will
bring a community into a good one. Living in a middle class situation enables a
person to understand the situation of a rich man or a poor man. This situation will
also enable the person to act rationally towards two “extreme” classes; the rich
one and the very poor one. Wisely then did Phocylides pray - “Many things are
best in the mean; I desire to be of a middle condition in my city (Aristotle 1).”
The role of the middle class also has a great contribution in building
whether a country is democratical or oligarchical (controlled by a small group of
people). When there are numbers of the middle class in a government, the
government will be democratic. In the other hand, if the rich one or the poor one
Democracies are safer and more permanent than oligarchies, because they have a
middle class which dominates and has a greater share in the government; for when
there is no middle class, and the poor greatly exceed in number, troubles arise, and
the state soon comes to an end (Aristotle 2).
c. Karl Marx’s Theory of Social Classes
Karl Marx based his theory in an economic point of view. According to
Marx history may be divided into several periods, for example, ancient
civilization, feudalism, and capitalism. Each of these periods is characterized by a
predominant mode of production and, based upon it, a class structure consisting of
a ruling and an oppressed class. The struggle between these classes determines the
social relations between men. In particular, the ruling class, which owes its
position to the ownership and control of the means of production, controls also,
though often in subtle ways, the whole moral and intellectual life of the people.
According to Marx, law and government, art and literature, science and
philosophy; all serve more or less directly the interests of the ruling class (Bendix
6).
The social classes are built based on the position which the individual
occupies in the social organization (Bendix 8). Therefore, the income or
occupation does not always determine his/her class position. For example, if two
men are carpenters, they belong to the same occupation, but one may run a small
housing; the two men belong to the same occupation, but to different social
classes.
In the production world where people earn for living, conflict is not
avoidable. The experience of economic, conflict would prompt the members of a
social class to develop common beliefs and common actions. According to Marx,
there are five variables which would facilitate this process (Bendix 8): firstly, the
conflicts over the distribution of economic rewards between the classes; secondly,
easy communication between the individuals in the same class-position so that
ideas and action-programs are readily disseminated; thirdly, growth of
class-consciousness in the sense that the members of the class have a feeling of
solidarity and understanding of their historic role; fourth, profound dissatisfaction
of the lower class over its inability to control the economic structure of which it
feels itself to be the exploited victim; and fifth, establishment of a political
organization resulting from the economic structure, the historical situation and
maturation of class-consciousness.
Thus, the organization of production provides the necessary but not a
sufficient basis for the existence of social classes. The five points; repeated
conflicts over economic rewards, the growth of class consciousness, the growing
dissatisfaction with exploitation which causes suffering in psychological as much
as in material term, etc are the conditions which help to overcome the differences
and conflicts between individuals and groups within the class and encourage the
The conflict or competition between or among classes make the classes are
solid within themselves. The individual conflict is avoidable. A social class can be
understood as a condition of group life which was constantly generated by the
organization production. This class formation is important, moreover essential, in
order to keep the existence of a common „class enemy‟, because without it
competition between individuals would prevail.
The situation within classes as communities will be good if the
competition was brought in a fair condition. If there is domination/monopoly of a
specific number of people, the situation will be worst as what Marx had ever
written: “Accumulation of wealth at one pole is, therefore, at the same time
accumulation of misery, agony of toil, slavery, ignorance, brutality, mental
degradation, at the opposite pole” (Bendix 10).
3. Power and Status Relations
The role of power in a society becomes one of the main things in status
relation and how the community will be built. Maintaining power in a society is a
must but needs consequences in practice. Power is needed in maintaining the
management of a community in order to bring this community into a better future.
But, an unmanageable or uncontrollable power will lead into great destruction of a
community.
Talcot Parsons says that power is one of the key concepts in the great
western tradition of thought about political phenomena (Parsons 240). To know
nature of power explained is based on the book titled Power and Society, An
Introduction to the Social Sciences written by Thomas R. Dye. It is important for
us to know the nature of power in order that we can see the way power “works” in
a society. Dye has proposed seven elements related to the nature of power.
Firstly, power is the capacity to affect the conduct of individuals through
the real or threatened use of rewards and punishments (Dye 4). It means that
power is exercised over individuals or groups by offering them some things they
value or by threatening to deprive them of those things. We can use power as a
tool to rule the situation and persons. The rulers manage power by offering people
some specific values so that they can build their society stronger. Power also
offers punishment if the “followers” do not obey or live the value they agreed.
Secondly, we see power as a special form of influence. Influence is the
production of intended effects (Dye 4). When people can produce intended effects
by any means, we can say that they are influential. It is logic that someone who
has power also has influential effect in his/her society. Someone can be said to be
powerful if he/she can produce intended effects by the real or threatened use of
rewards and punishments.
Thirdly, power can rest on various resources (Dye 4). It means that the
exercise of power assumes many different forms – the giving or withholding of
many different values. Yet power bases are usually interdependent – individuals
who control certain resources are likely to control other resources as well. This
situation is next, to be one of the main problem that occur in a society related to
Fourth, power is never equally distributed (Dye 4). “Power holder” must
control some values in his/her society in order to get his/her influence. This
situation urge for one domination. By controlling the values, the power holder is
in a position to offer these values as rewards to others or to threaten to deprive
others of these values. There is no power if power is equal.
Fifth, power is a relationship among individuals, groups, and institutions in
society (Dye 4). When someone is isolated from his/her society, he/she is
powerless. We can say that power is not really a “thing” that an individual
possesses. Instead, power is a relationship in which some individuals or groups
have control over certain resources. When someone wants to be powerful, he/she
has to manage his/her relationship well.
Sixth, power is exercised in interpersonal relations. Psychologist Rollo
May wrote that “power means the ability to affect, to influence, and to change
other persons” (Dye 4). In a society, interpersonal relation is the first step to
“conquer” the mass as a whole community.
The last one, power is exercised in large institutions – governments,
corporations, schools, the military, churches, newspapers, television networks,
law firms, and so on. Power that stems from high positions in the social structures
of society is stable and far-reaching (Dye 5).
Sociologist C. Wright Mills observed: “No one can be truly powerful
unless he has access to the command of major institutions, for it is over these
institutional means of power that the truly powerful are, in the first instance,
institutions. Yet institutional positions in society provide a continuous and
important base of power. Mills explains:
If we took the one hundred most powerful men in America, the one hundred wealthiest, and the one hundred most celebrated away from the institutional positions they now occupy, away from their resources of men and women and money, away from the media of mass communication that are now focused upon them – then they would be powerless and poor and uncelebrated. For power is not of a man. Wealth does not center in the person of the wealthy…. To have power requires access to major institutions, for the institutional positions men occupy determine in large part their chances to have and to hold these valued experiences (Dye 5).
According to the Wikipedia Encyclopedia there are some sources of
power. They are delegated authority (for example in the democratic process),
social class (material wealth can equal power), personal or group charisma,
ascribed power (acting on perceived or assumed abilities, whether these bear
testing or not), expertise (ability, skills) (the power of medicine to bring about
health; another famous example would be "in the land of the blind, the one-eyed
man is king" - Desiderius Erasmus), persuasion (direct, indirect, or subliminal),
Knowledge (granted or withheld, shared or kept secret), money (financial
influence, control of labour, control through ownership, etc), fame, force
(violence, military might, coercion), moral persuasion (including religion),
operation of group dynamics (such as public relations), social influence of
tradition (compare ascribed power), and in relationships;
4. Theory of Stratification
People in the world are divided into several classes. Each of the people has
her or his role within their society. Consciously or unconsciously, people are
divided into their social status.
The life of the Afro-American people in 1960s was also divided into their
social status. The social status of black community, can be said, is the excess of
social strata that was build by white community. This situation can be happen
because the influence of white in the slavery era was so strong.
In 1960s, the Whites have higher social status in a society rather than the
Blacks. Black people got a different treatment in front of the law or in public
places because they belonged to the lower social status. We know that black
people used to be slaves and the label of lower social status seems to be inherited
from their ancestor.
The stratification that was built, if it is not controlled well, will lead into
social discrimination. In the other words, discrimination will happen if there is
stratification within a society and there is no social control which makes the
differentiation as a tool to build the society stronger.
So, what are the positive and negative effects of stratification? Melvin M.
Tumin wrote some functions of stratification as stated in the form of provisional
assertions, as follows (Tumin 58):
Firstly, social stratification systems function to limit the possibility of
people in the society have different opportunity in developing their talent. Only
particular persons have the chances to develop their talent through the society.
Secondly, in foreshortening the range of available talent, social
stratification systems function to set limits upon the possibility of expanding the
productive resources of the society, at least relative to what might be the case
under conditions of greater equality of opportunity.
Thirdly, social stratification systems function to provide the elite with the
political power necessary to procure acceptance and dominance of an ideology
which rationalizes the status quo, whatever it may be, as “logical,” “natural” and
“morally right.” Since the stratification system put people in the different position
and class, distribution of power automatically fall into the hand of the upper class
people. This upper class, of course, has a big chance to rule the society.
Fourth, social stratification systems function to distribute favorable
self-images unequally throughout a population. The image of upper class people will
be built better than the lower class. Inferiority of the lower class will put their
self-images under the upper class people.
Fifth, to the extent that inequalities in social rewards cannot be made fully
acceptable to the less privileged in a society, social stratification systems function
to encourage hostility, suspicion and distrust among the various segments of a
society and thus to limit the possibilities of extensive social integration. This
situation related to the building of good relation among others people. Since there
Sixth, to the extent that the sense of significant membership in a society
depends on one‟s place on the prestige ladder of the society, social stratification
systems function to distribute unequally the sense of significant membership in
the population. Since the role of particular members of a society is different each
other, the contribution one person to the society will be different with the other
person.
Seventh, to the extent that loyalty to a society depends on a sense of
significant membership in the society, social stratification systems function to
distribute loyalty unequally in the population. Loyalties of a particular group of a
society belong to their own group. Friction between different classes will lead to
the conflict within a society.
Eighth, to the extent that participation and apathy depend upon the sense
of significant membership in the society, social stratification systems function to
distribute the motivation to participate unequally in the population. Each member
will contribute their talent differently since they have different position within the
society. A person who has significant role in the society has also different
motivation.
5. Theory of Discrimination
Black people in the slavery era and after that faced discrimination within
the society. Most of them were from white people. Black people were treated as
commodity. After the slavery era, they also faced discrimination although there
because they were also the citizens of United States. The fact was that black
people were treated differently before the law.
Discrimination takes many forms. They are racial discrimination, age
discrimination, gender discrimination, caste discrimination, employment
discrimination, language discrimination, reverse discrimination, and disability
discrimination. The most common discrimination in this world is employment
discrimination since most of the country start with the industrial era. Moreover,
employment discrimination also related to the other discrimination for example
sex discrimination. Different opportunity in getting job because of different sex
becomes one example of this kind of discrimination.
According to Linda Clarke, equal opportunities make good business sense.
The key word of this statement is equal (Clarke 3). In order to avoid „a less
favorable treatment‟, equality is needed. Equality becomes the key concept in
fighting discrimination.
There are many efforts done to maintain the equality. The principle of
equal treatment is recognized in Article 1 of the constitution of the Netherlands,
which declares that „persons shall be treated equally in equal circumstances‟
(Banton 73). This article clearly stated that discrimination is wrong because it
B. Socio-Historical Background
1. The Afro American Community in 1960s – 1970s
Martin Luther King Junior portrays the discrimination the Black had to
face (Rustin 444). During the slavery era, black people got so many tortures from
white people as their land lord. This situation influenced black people thought.
This situation also treated the black community as the lower class people. After
the slavery era black people, although there was not all of black people got their
freedom, maintain a better life. They built their own community. Some civil right
movements rouse and gave some effects to the government.
There were some rules which facilitate black people life in the society.
Equality as the American citizen was broadly spread through out the state. Yet all
of the rules made were only tools to calm the black movement. It was only
illusion. There was still discrimination toward black people.
Concerning this situation some leaders provoked some actions to maintain
the solution. Two famous leaders from black community were Malcom X and
Martin Luther King Jr. They fought for the black freedom in different ways.
Malcom X as the Islamic black leader used the radical way whether Martin Luther
King Jr. as the Protestant leader used the diplomatic way. In 1960‟s –1970‟s there
are a lot of freedom movements rouse.
2. American Class and Caste System
Caste system differentiates the Blacks and the Whites. Caste here, as it is
society. The caste system is used to emphasize the inferiority of black people. The
term class is also used within an Afro-American Community itself. Before we go
further, I am going to start with the situation of class and caste determination
between Black and White.
Intermarriage between the Negroes and the Whites is forbidden. Gunnar
Myrdal wrote in his book “An American Dilemma” that the ban on intermarriage
is one expression of the still broader principle, which is valid for the entire United
States without any exception.
…A man born a Negro or a White is not allowed to pass from the one status to the other as he can pass from one class to another. In this important respect, the caste system of America is closed and rigid, while the class system is, in a measure, always open and mobile (Myrdal 668).
This situation is kept by the law. We can see that caste purity is always
guarded so intermarriage could not happen. This fact put the Afro-American
people in a difficult situation. This situation also lit the discrimination upon
Afro-American people related to their daily life situation. Caste discrimination between
black and white is not because the American is poor or ill-educated.
Afro-American people are subject to certain disabilities solely because they are
“Negroes”.
Later, this situation will also happen within a Black Community. Gunnar
Myrdal describes discrimination within Afro-American community as the excess
of white attitude and behavior towards them, clearly.
analyzed and their „functional‟ role as rationalizations of the superior caste‟s interests has been stressed. The racial beliefs and the popular theory of „no social equality‟ were found to have a kernel of magical logic, signified by the notion of “blood”. We have been brought to view the caste order as fundamentally a system of disability forced by the whites upon the Negroes, and our discussion of the Negro Problem up to this point has, therefore, been mainly a study of the whites‟ attitude and behavior... The Negro problem is primarily a white man‟s problem. In this part we shall find that the class order within the Negro caste is chiefly a function of the historical caste order in America (Myrdal 669).
Caste system in America will determine the blood rule. This situation is
protected because intermarriage is banned. Both sides, the Blacks and the Whites,
keep the purity of their blood heritage. So, crossing caste line is rarely happen. In
the American caste order, this can be accomplished only by the deception of the
white people with whom the passer comes to associate and by a conspiracy of
silence on the part of other Negroes who might know about it (Myrdal 682).
When someone passes from one caste line to the other or intermarriage,
he/she will find difficulties socializing with his/her associates. It is assumed that
crossing caste line will make Negroes live in a higher class structure. But, there
are some reasons why Negroes still keep their pure blood. Gunnar Myrdal
interviewed his Negro friend, a young and gifted college graduate among his
Negro friends, about why he preferred not to pass (Myrdal 686):
First, when passing as a white (with some Indian Blood), he could never
overcome a slight feeling of strain and nervousness when in company; he would
have to make forced explanations concerning his family; and he always felt
suspicion around him-probably more suspicion, he remarked, than there actually
Second, because of his teaching position and his “good looks” he is “tops”
in the Negro community; while if he were white in a similar job, he would be one
among many and far from the social ceiling.
Third, because his profession was one in which there are few qualified
Negro workers, he got his position more easily as a Negro than he would have as
white man. He was aware that he could advance further in the white world, but
observed that even a large advance as a white man would carry much less esteem
than a correspondingly smaller advance as a Negro.
Fourth, social life was so much more pleasant in the higher ranks of the
Negro community than in the corresponding ranks of the white community: a
Negro had so many more intimate associates; there were so many more social
affairs and family entertainments going on in the Negro community-due probably,
he observed, to the Negro‟s reaction against segregation in public places.
3. Negro Community after the Slavery
Slavery in the United States started in 1619 when the first Africans
arrived. In that year a Dutch vessel landed in Jamestown, and the captain sold 20
blacks to the Virginia settlers (Pinkney 1). In the slavery era, slaves were treated
as a commodity. The slave received none of the protections of organized society
because he was not considered to be a person; rather, he was considered to be
property, and only to the extent that a citizen‟s property must be protected could
the slave expect society‟s consideration. The slaves were not treated as human
This situation formed a new community for the slaves. It could not be
avoided that they lost their tradition and culture because of slavery. They lived in
a place with black people from other areas. They could not maintain their own
culture. They must master English language for the sake of the land lord in
ordering them to do something. It was not surprised that there was a mix language
within the slave community. Franzier summarizes the impact of slavery on the
slaves as follows:
The African family system was destroyed, and the slave was separated from his kinsmen and friends. Moreover, in the United States there was little chance that he could reknit the ties of friendship and old associations. If by chance he encountered fellow slaves with whom he could communicate in his native tongue, he was separated from them. From the very beginning he was forced to learn English in order to obey the commands of his white masters. Whatever memories he might have retained of his native land and native customs became meaningless in the New World (Pinkney 7).
The population of the free blacks increased steadily from the middle of the
seventeenth century until emancipation. But, not all black people in the United
States were enslaved. The civil war is one of the trigger of free black movements.
Pinkney says there are several factors account for the steady increase in
the population of free blacks (Pinkney 15): firstly, manumission of slaves, which
had been practiced since the beginning of slavery, became a major factor in the
increase in the free black population; second, children born to free blacks
inherited the status of their parents; thirdly, mulatto children born of free black
mothers were free; fourth, children of free black and Indian parentage were born
free; fifth, mulatto children born to white mothers were free; and sixth, slaves
people, maintaining their freedom became the most difficult task to do. There
were some attempts from the Whites to drag the free black people into slaves.
Abraham Lincoln was one of prominent figures who opposed to the
institution of slavery and opposed racial integration. He fought for the same right
between the Black and the Whites. This situation made him assassinated in 1865.
After the assassination, the discrimination was growing faster and faster in the
south area. Because of their economic plight and the widespread violence directed
against them, many black people sought to improve their status through migration.
In 1900 nearly nine-tenths of the blacks in the United States were in the South, the
vast majority of them lived in the rural areas. The migration took several forms:
rural blacks sought safety in the relative anonymity of cities, Southern blacks
moved North, and many blacks moved to countries in Africa. Because of their
economic plight, the absence of skills, and discrimination elsewhere in the United
States, most blacks remained in the rural South.
4. Classes in the Negro Community
Belong to a different white master determined the class of a slave. Black
people worked as servants (usually a mulatto) have a higher social status rather
than those who worked in a farm or field. The cultural penetration of white was so
strong. This new class order is the new thing inherited to the next generation of
black people. Pinkney pictures this situation as follows:
between domestic slaves and those relegated to field work. The “house slaves” enjoyed higher status that the “field slaves,” and they jealously guarded their superior positions… Being around the slaveholder‟s family afforded “house slaves” the opportunity to assimilate the external forms of behavior which they observed. Slaveholders and their families, who usually preferred mulatto house servants, encouraged the division between “house slaves” and “field slaves” as a means of maintaining control (Pinkney 5).
According to Gunnar Myrdal, lower classes are for those uneducated black
people. They are the habitual criminals, prostitutes, gamblers and vagabonds. In
the other side, the upper class of Negro community built their own community,
separated from the lower class. They are business, particularly in the field of
banking or insurance, but also in contracting, real estate, and personal service. The
upper class black community tried to protect or isolate themselves from the lower
class. The other characteristics of black upper class are described as follows:
Often family background is stressed in this class. The family is organized upon the paternalistic principle, legal marriage is an accepted form, and illegitimacy and desertion are not condoned. Children are shielded as far as possible both from influences of the lower class Negroes and from humiliating experiences of the caste system ( Myrdal 701-702).
This situation was improved and developed steadily within the black
community. The black community, like the white community which surrounds it,
has always maintained a degree of social stratification. This social stratification
within black community was used by slave holders to divide the slave force. The
slaveholders avoided or prevented the unity of black community.
After emancipation, class distinctions among blacks frequently followed
the patterns established during slavery: those based on wealth, occupation,
5. Distribution of Afro American People
At the first time, the population was concentrated in the South. This
situation happened because throughout most of American history black people
had been heavily concentrated in the agricultural South (Pinkney 47). At the end
of the Civil War more than 92 percent of all blacks lived in the South. There had
been a gradual reduction in the black population in the South since the beginning
of the twentieth century. At the turn of the century (1900), nine out of ten blacks
in the United States were still in the South. Throughout the present century,
however, blacks had migrated from the South to other regions, principally to the
Northeast and to the Noth-Central states. So widespread has been this migration
that, by 1970, only slightly more than half (53 percent) of the blacks remained in
the South.
The significant exodus from the South to the North happened during the
World War I. The Afro American people migrated from the South to the North
because they could manage a better life in the North. The rest of the Afro
American people in the South, at the first time, prefer to live in the rural area, in
the Deep South states. By 1970, four out of every five (80 percent) blacks lived in
urban areas, compared to 73 percent of the total population. Blacks have been
becoming urbanized at a faster rate than the population as a whole. In the 70 years
between 1900 and 1970, the black population has been transformed from a
6. Afro-American Church
Church as the central of black community has a great role in motivating
black people to get their freedom. Most of the freedom movements formed by
black community are discussed in religious community. Church is not only a place
for praying or communicating with God, but also a place for sharing knowledge in
managing the freedom from slavery. The primary function of the Negro church,
school, and press are not, of course, to be agencies of power for the Negro caste.
Nevertheless, they are of importance to the power relation within the Negro
community and between Negroes and whites.
a. Black and White Church
As a hierarchical community, Church had its leader and the followers must
obey all of the rule made. At the first time, the leaders of black religious were
white men and, of course, blacks and whites were treated in separated places.
Black could not do the service in the same church. Hence, the black community
then chose their own religious leader. They chose their own preachers from black
community itself. This situation was clearly described by Sir George Campbell:
Every man and woman likes to be himself or herself an active member of the Church. And though their preachers are in a great degree their leaders, these preachers are chosen by the people from the people, under a system for the most part congregational, and are rather preachers because they are leaders than leaders because they are preachers. (Myrdal 860-861).
How did the white preachers control the development of black
community? Using the hierarchical system, the white controlled the black
political leaders were recruited from the preachers. This situation was used by
whites to control black communities.
In practically all rural areas, and in many of the urban ones, the preacher stood out as the acknowledged local leader of the Negroes. His function became to transmit the whites‟ wishes to the Negroes and to beg the whites for favors for his people. He became-in our terminology-the typical accommodating Negro leader. To this degree the Negro church perpetuated the traditions of slavery (Myrdal 861).
But, this situation gradually diminished because gathering blacks and
whites in the same church was a new problem for white preachers. This situation
could be happen because there was dilemma. Segregation in Christian churches is
an embarrassment. In a religion whose central teaching is brotherly love and the
golden rule, preachers have to do a great deal of rationalizing as they expound
their own gospel (Myrdal 868). The presence of black people in the church made
the white followers left the church one by one. It could not be avoided that black
church would be born.
The development of black church was growing stronger and stronger. The
biggest church which had the biggest followers was the Baptist church. It got 41
per cent from the total followers (Myrdal 866). The other churches, ranked from
the higher to the lower followers after the Baptist church, are the Methodist, the
Protestant Episcopal, the Roman Catholic, the Presbyterian, the Adventist, the
Congregationalist, the Moravian and Lutheran.
b. From a Place to Worship to the Outstanding Social Institution
Since the black church needed funds for managing its existence, it
