THE DISCRIMINATION AGAINST AFRICAN AMERICAN
WOMEN IN THE EARLY 1960S AS DEPICTED IN KATHRYN
STOCKETT’S
THE HELP
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Stella Maris Saraswati Mere Student Number: 091214030
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
i
THE DISCRIMINATION AGAINST AFRICAN AMERICAN
WOMEN IN THE EARLY 1960S AS DEPICTED IN KATHRYN
STOCKETT’S
THE HELP
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Stella Maris Saraswati Mere Student Number: 091214030
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
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“Change begins with a whisper” (Kathryn Stockett)
“In three words, I can sum up everything I’ve learned about life: IT GOES ON”. (Robert Frost)
“Use your heart to love somebody, and if your heart is big enough, use your
heart to love everybody”. (Stevie Wonder)
“Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see.”
(Mark Twain)
vii
ABSTRACT
Mere, Stella Maris Saraswati. (2013). The Discrimination against African
American Women in the Early 1960s as Depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
This study discusses The Help, a novel written by an American author named Kathryn Stockett. The novel centers on the relationship between African American women working as domestic servants and the white employers who employ them. The novel is very detailed and honest in depicting the relationship as the author writes the novel based on her real experience as a young white woman raised by an African American domestic servant. Talking about African American women in 1960s, the novel clearly depicts discrimination against African American women in the era. Thus, in this study, the writer intended to analyze discrimination against African American women in Mississippi in the early 1960s depicted in The Help.
One research problem was formulated in this study: (1) How is the discrimination against African American women in the early 1960s depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help?
In order to answer the research problem, the writer applied the socio-cultural historical approach, which enabled the writer to relate the novel with the history and the social condition of African American community in the early 1960s. The writer chose a library study as the method of this study, in which a novel entitled The Help became the primary source of the study. The secondary sources of this study contained the theories and the reviews of racial discrimination, gender discrimination, domestic violence, and African American women in the 1960s-1970s.
Based on the analysis conducted, there were two findings found in the study. The first finding revealed that The Help depicted the moments when African American women encountered racial discrimination practiced by their white employers. Based on the types of racial discrimination, African American women encountered insult, denial, segregation, and antilocution. All of the discriminatory acts were done institutionally. The second finding revealed that The Help also depicted the moments when African American women were discriminated regarding their roles as women. Based on the theory of gender discrimination and the theory of domestic violence, it was revealed that African American women were frequently abused by their spouses regarding their ability to earn money. The ability had made their husbands feel that they had been emasculated.
viii ABSTRAK
Mere, Stella Maris Saraswati. (2013). The Discrimination against African
American Women in the Early 1960s as Depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help. Yogyakarta: Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Studi ini membahas sebuah novel berjudul The Help karya Kathryn Stockett, penulis berkebangsaan Amerika. Novel ini menggambarkan relasi antara wanita Afrika Amerika yang bekerja sebagai pembantu rumah tangga dengan orang kulit putih yang mempekerjakan mereka. Novel ini sangat detil dan jujur dalam menggambarkan relasi tersebut. Pasalnya, novel ini ditulis berdasarkan pengalaman pribadi Kathryn sebagai seorang gadis kulit putih yang diasuh oleh seorang wanita Afrika Amerika yang bekerja sebagai pembantunya. Berbicara tentang wanita Afrika Amerika di tahun 1960-an, novel ini secara jelas menggambarkan diskriminasi yang dialami oleh para wanita Afrika Amerika pada jaman itu. Oleh karena itu, melalui studi ini, penulis membuat sebuah analisis tentang diskriminasi terhadap wanita Afrika Amerika di Mississippi tahun 1960an sebagaimana digambarkan dalam The Help.
Studi ini memiliki satu persoalan yang akan dibahas yaitu tentang bagaimana diskriminasi terhadap wanita Afrika Amerika di awal tahun 1960an digambarkan dalam novel The Help karya Kathryn Stockett.
Untuk membahas persoalan ini, penulis melalukan pendekatan sosio-kultural historis yang memudahkan penulis untuk menemukan relasi antara kondisi social dan historis dari komunitas Afrika Amerika (khususnya para wanitanya) pada awal tahun 1960an. Penulis memilih studi pustaka sebagai metode studi ini dengan menggunakan novel The Help sebagai sumber utama. Sementara sumber sekunder dalam studi ini menggunakan teori dan ulasan tentang diskriminasi ras dan gender, kekerasan dalam rumah tangga, dan wanita Afrika Amerika di awal tahun 1960an.
Ada dua temuan berdasarkan hasil analisis. Temuan pertama menunjukkan bahwa The Help menggambarkan peristiwa dimana wanita Afrika Amerika mengalami diskriminasi ras yang dilakukan oleh orang kulit putih yang juga adalah majikan mereka. Diskriminasi ras yang mereka alami berupa penghinaan, penolakan, segregasi, dan pencemaran nama baik. Semua aksi diskriminasi tersebut juga dilakukan secara instiusional. Sementara temuan kedua dalam studi ini menunjukkan bahwa The Help menggambarkan wanita Afrika Amerika juga didiskriminasi terkait peran mereka sebagai wanita. Berdasarkan teori diskriminasi gender dan kekerasan rumah tangga ditemukan sebuah fakta bahwa wanita Afrika Amerika sering mendapat kekerasan dari pasangan .
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply indebted to Lord Jesus Christ and Mother Mary for the blessing and love upon the process of writing this thesis. There were many obstacles which I encountered during the process of writing the thesis. However, the love and blessing have always strengthened me in finishing the thesis.
I am also indebted to my thesis advisor, Henny Herawati, S.Pd, M.Hum for her sincere dedication. I thank her for the valuable advices, profound discussions, great sources, and valuable motivation given to me sincerely. Her dedication has surely led me to finish the thesis successfully.
I also want to express my great honor to Adesti Komalasari, S.Pd, M. Hum for proofreading my thesis. I thank her for the valuable suggestions given to me. My gratitude also goes to Fr. Tarsisius Puling, SVD for helping me out when I tried hard to find reliable sources on African American women. The books he has given to me are truly useful in broadening my knowledge.
x
I thank my best partners of all time, Aldin, Nindi, Shela, Ulis, Opa Anton Cicik Christine, Sr. Anselina, FSGM, Erika, Febri, Cinta, Lia, Wilda, Ajeng,
Kakak Devi, Sinta, Dimas, Wisnu, and Tunggul for persevering together in every
moment we have been through in PBI. My deep gratitude also goes to all fellow 2009 PBI students, PBI lecturers and staff for every precious moment we have been through. Also, my gratitude goes to my students in PFIS, KYM, and Xaverian for the great motivation which truly inspires me.
Last but not least, I want to address my gratitude to those people who sincerely and unconditionally motivate, inspire, and advise me to always do my best in life. I apologize for not being able to mention the names one by one. May God grant them His sincere love and blessing.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi
ABSTRACT ... vii
ABSTRAK ... viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xi
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Problem Formulation ... 3
C. Objectives of the Study ... 4
D. Benefits of the Study ... 4
E. Definition of Terms ... 5
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 7
xii
1. Socio-Cultural-Historical Approach to Literature ... 8
2. Theory of Racial Discrimination ... 9
a. Definition of Race ... 9
b. Definition of Dicrimination... 9
c. Types of Racial Discrimination ... 10
1) Institutional Discrimination ... 10
2) Insult and Denial ... 11
3) Segregation ... 13
4) Antilocution ... 13
3. Theory of Gender Discrimination ... 15
a. Definition of Gender Discrimination ... 15
b. Violence against Women ... 17
B. Reviews on Socio-Cultural and Historical Background ... 17
1. African American Women in 1960s-1970s... 18
a. As Workers, Wives, and Mothers ... 18
b. Domestic Violence against African American women 19 C. Theoretical Framework ... 20
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ... 22
A. Object of the Study... 22
B. Approach of the Study ... 23
xiii
CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS ... 26
A. Discrimination Encountered by African American Women as Workers (Domestic servants or Maids)... 27
1. Segregated Facilities ... 27
2. Being Slandered and Being Called as Niggra ... 32
3. Segregated Neighborhoods ... 34
B. Discrimination Encountered by African American Women as women ... 36
1. Being the Victims of Domestic Violence by Husbands ... 37
2. Being Denied as the Breadwinners by their Husbands ... 40
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 43
A. Conclusions ... 43
B. Suggestions ... 46
1. For the Future Researchers... 47
2. For Teachers ... 48
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix A:
The Summary of The Help ... 52
Appendix B:
The Biography of Kathryn Stockett ... 56
Appendix C:
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is divided into five sections. They are the background of the study, the problem formulation, the objectives of the study, the benefits of the study, and the definition of terms. The background of the study explains the reasons for choosing the topic. Moreover, in this section I also present the reasons why the topic is worth studying. The problem formulation formulates the problems that will be discussed in the study into one clear question. The objectives of the study present the purposes of this study. This is also closely related to the benefits of study which is aimed at revealing the advantages of the study for the readers of this thesis. The definition of terms is aimed at avoiding ambiguous interpretations of the terms used in this study.
A. Background of the Study
Many authors choose to criticize or present social problems through literary works. Kathryn Stockett, a new comer author, is one of the authors who present social problems through literary works. Through her debut novel, The Help, she criticizes the racial discrimination against African American community
Mississippi around 1960s-1970s, in which racial discrimination was frequently practiced. Thus, this experience inspires her to share what she feels as a white person who witnesses the discrimination.
There are many reasons underlying the selection of The Help as the novel studied in this thesis. The first reason is that Kathryn Stockett wrote this novel based on her experience of being raised by an African American woman. This contributes to the honesty and detailed description of the relationship between white people and African American people in the novel. The second reason is the detailed description of the characters and how they overcome the problem. The third reason is the moral value that we can get from the novel. This novel truly shows the readers that discrimination against and superiority to others will only lead life to misery.
discriminated by her employer, Ms. Hilly Holbrook, as Hilly is always cruel to her and often slanders her. The misery that Minny experiences is not merely being discriminated against by her white household, but also on being abused by her own husband, who is an African American. Minny is not the only example of the African American women who encounter such a problem. There are still many characters (African American Women) who experience being discriminated by their white households due to racial matters. Moreover, these characters are also discriminated on grounds of gender.
I find that the depiction of discrimination against African American women in the novel is interesting to discuss as I can see the point of view of the African American women in the novel (through the character of Aibileen, Minny, Constantine, and Yule May) regarding the discrimination they experience. Moreover, one more thing that also interests me in conducting the study is that Kathryn Stockett can successfully present the point of view of those African American women, even though she is a white American woman. Having considered those things, I intend to reveal the discrimination against African American women in Jackson, Mississippi in the early 1960s as depicted in the novel.
B. Problem Formulation
How is the discrimination against African American women in Jackson, Mississippi in the early 1960s depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help?
C. Objective of the Study
The general objective of the study is derived from the formulated problem above. It is to reveal the depiction of discrimination against African American women in Jackson, Mississippi in the early 1960s in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help.
Thus, I attempt to narrow down the general objective into two specific objectives; the first one is to reveal the discrimination encountered by African American women as workers depicted in the novel. It attempts to reveal the discrimination practiced by white employers against African American women working as maids. The second objective is to reveal the discrimination on grounds of gender, which is experienced by African American women depicted in the novel.
D. Benefits of the Study
novel, especially in terms of learning the history and culture underlying the novel. For future researchers who are interested in studying discrimination depicted in literary works, this study might be a useful reference to enable further researchers to conduct their study.
E. Definition of Terms
In order to avoid ambiguous interpretation on this thesis, the writer attempts to define two main terms, namely, discrimination and African American.
1. Discrimination
Light, Keller, and Calhoun (1989) define discrimination as “the exclusion or
the exploitation on the basis of group of a membership” (p. 216). The statement
means, discrimination is an act of mistreating and blacklisting a particular group of people due to differences which this group has. In this study, all of the African American women working as maids in the novel are excluded and exploited to receive equal treatments and facilities with their white employers on the grounds of race. Moreover, this study also shows that African American women are also exploited on the grounds of gender.
2. African American
Babbie (1982) defines African American or Black American as “a group
Hraba (1979) who mentions that these African American people were brought in the era of Agrarian Society around 16th century to work as slaves in plantations operated by white Americans. However, as the time went on, African American people did not only work as plantation slaves but also worked as servants or maids. Hraba (1979) supports the statement by stating, “For longer than nearly
any other ethnic groups in the country, black Americans have been a class of agrarian laborers and domestic servants.”
Regarding the existence of African American people, Hraba (1979) mentions that African American people were not only once traded as slaves but in fact they had also been oppressed (p. 253). He says: “Black people were once treated as the property of others, and they have historically been dispossessed of their own property.” This statement implies that African Americans have
7
CHAPTER II
REVIEWS OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the theories of critical approach to literature, the theories of discrimination, and the history of African American women are presented and reviewed to support the discussion in this study. This chapter is divided into three parts, namely the review of related theories, the review of socio-cultural and historical background, and the theoretical framework. The review of related theories consists of some theories which are applied to this study, namely the review of socio-cultural and historical approach to literature, and the theory of racial discrimination. The reviews of socio-cultural-and historical background consist of some reviews of African American women in the 1960s. The theoretical framework explains the contribution of those theories and reviews to solve the problem of this study, especially in a matter of why the theories and reviews are applied to this study and how to apply them. In addition, those theories and reviews are synthesized so that those theories and reviews can be applied to solve the problems.
A. Review of Related Theories
the brief overview of applying the socio-cultural and historical approach to literature. The theory of racial discrimination deals with the definition and the types of racial discrimination. Meanwhile, the theory of gender discrimination deals with the brief overview of gender discrimination and violence against women.
1. Socio-Cultural-Historical Approach to Literature
Kennedy and Gioia (1999) have mentioned that the socio-cultural and historical approach is aimed at examining literary works based on cultural, social, context which produce the literary works (p. 1955). This means that the approach aims to analyze the cultural, economic, and political values in a particular social milieu that is contained in literary works. Therefore, this approach believes that literary works represent culture and the way of life of a particular civilization. This is supported by Rohrberger and Woods (1971) who say that actions and attitudes shown by particular civilization play role as the subject matter of literary works (p.9). In addition to its function of examining literary works based on social and cultural context that produce them, this approach also “explores the
2. Theory of Racial Discrimination
Race and discrimination are the fundamental elements to discuss in this section. Thus, this section attempts to define race and discrimination. Furthermore, the section also deals with the types of racial discrimination existing in society.
a. Definition of Race
Schaefer (1986) states that biologically, race is a group of people who “have developed common physical characteristics that distinguish them from
other humans” (p. 224). The physical traits which distinguish each group of
human from another have practically become the obvious characteristics setting apart a group from another. In a society where there are majority and minority groups, different physical traits have set apart minorities from majorities. Schaefer (1986) then notes that some countries may claim skin color and hair color as the obvious physical differences which lead majorities to set them apart from the minorities (p. 224). Furthermore he mentions that skin color becomes one of the obvious physical differences that have dramatic social and political meaning. The statements presented above might imply that race is a set of obvious physical differences that mostly determine people to give social definition to each society.
b. Definition of Discrimination
treatment toward a group which intends to create a disadvantage of some sort”
(p.126). Hraba (1979) then attempts to define the disadvantage as the attempt to limit a group’s access to any social opportunity. These opportunities can occur “with reflect of employment, adequate housing, and all sorts of public services,
including publication” (p. 126).
Zanden (1988) defines discrimination as “the arbitrary denial of privilege, prestige, and power to members of a minority group whose qualifications are equal to those of members of the dominant group” (p. 259). Two definitions of
discrimination above imply that discrimination is an act in which a minority group has unequal rights and is denied access to any social opportunity due to differences that this group has.
c. Types of Racial Discrimination
This section deals with the types of racial discrimination. The types of racial discrimination presented in this study are proposed by Zanden (1988), Schaefer (1986) and Rose (1997). Zanden and Rose come up with institutional discrimination. In addition to institutional discrimination, Rose and Schaefer also identify other types of discrimination, namely insult, denial, segregation, and antilocution.
1) Institutional Discrimination
individuals in one-to-one encounters but also by institutions in daily operations” (p. 230). He further explains that institutional discrimination refers to a denial of equal rights and opportunities that a particular group receives as a result from “the normal operations of a society.” Carmichael and Hamilton (1967) in Zanden
(1988) attempt to define the opportunities by mentioning businesses, schools, hospitals, governments, and other key institutions as some of the opportunities which “need not to be staffed by prejudiced people in order for discrimination to
occur” (p. 259).
Institutional discrimination has practically been characterized as a daily habit. Rose (1997) clarifies the statement by referring to institutional discrimination as an accepted part of everyday life (p. 138). The statement implies that hatred is no longer the main reason for people to practice institutional discrimination. They practice institutional discrimination since they know that it is something that is expected to be practiced in the society.
2) Insult and Denial
Both denial and insult involve avoidance of the discriminated people. These acts are also acceptable in everyday life. Rose (1997) mentions insult as “one of a range of actions we call discriminatory” (p. 138). Furthermore, he
“intimate contact with the family, such as cooks, maids, even wet-nurses for the children”, however the servants have to face reality that the employers are
reluctant to allow them to receive equal treatments, namely swimming in the same pool and drinking from the same water fountain (p.138). Regarding the fact that this kind of insult is accepted in everyday life, Rose adds that many discriminators may not insult due to hatred that they have against the discriminated people. As a matter of fact, those discriminators only subscribe to that kind of behavior as it is “acceptable according to the society and culture” (p. 139).
Almost similar to insult, denial is defined as a discriminatory act which involves “establishing and maintaining some measure of physical and social
distance from minorities” (Rose, 1997: p. 146). The statement means that most discrimination existing in this world involves the avoidance of physical and social contact with minority groups. Rose further says that the avoidance can involve avoiding contact as much as possible and limiting the chances for minority groups to access any social opportunity that everyone can enjoy. This habit of avoidance has been learnt since the early life. According to Rose (1997), children are taught by their parents and playmates about “with whom they should or should not associate” (p. 146). Thus, on their adulthood, they manifest themselves in any
attitude to “prevent” or “minimize” the contact with the minority groups (p.146). Rose then adds the attitudes as “being low repute, unpleasant, or even untouchable” (p. 146).
namely schools, playgrounds, parks, and even beaches (p. 146). The boycott imposed frequently makes discriminated people decide to withdraw themselves from accessing or enjoying any facilitiy.
3) Segregation
Schaefer (1986) defines segregation as the “physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social functions” (p. 232). This is
frequently imposed by majority groups to minority groups. He then attempts to clarify the definition by providing the example of housing system in the United States. He notes that the housing system in the country forces “subordinate racial” to live in the neighborhoods, which are usually “undesirable” ones. In addition, many members of the subordinate racial groups voluntarily seek to live separately from the majority groups because they fear violence committed against them (p.232).
4) Antilocution
Rose (1997) refers antilocution as a the act shown of slurring the discriminated people by using Ethnophaulism. He then explains the action by defining the word Ethnophaulism:
Ethnophaulism is a technical word for a derogatory term used by the members of one ethnic group to describe the member of another. Ethnophaulism are often at the core of prejudice, and when openly expressed, become a form of discrimination called antilocution, a fancy word for name-calling. (p. 139)
From the explanation above, antilocution is then defined as a discriminatory act in which the members of an ethnical group verbally give slurs against another ethnical group. Antilocution has damaged reputation of the recipient’s personality. Besides, antilocution is often used by certain people to
indicate “unfriendliness” (p. 140). The worst impact of showing antilocution is
the bad label which is always attached to the discriminated people. This is supported by Richard Wright in Rose (1997) who states that antilocution has created a “stain that leaves indelible imprint on the recipient’s personality” (p.
139). Antilocution has been characterized as a non-direct discriminatory act since this action is not addressed directly to the discriminated people. Rose supports this statement by saying that people who become the object of antilocution are aware of the fact that they are “being said behind their backs”, however they can only
seethe at the action (p. 140). This means that the object of antilocution will definitely be angry of the action but they are unable to express their anger as the act is acceptable to their society.
Antilocution has been eventually shown in various expressions. Rose
mentioning “boy” as an antilocution to an adult black man and “miss” to a
married black woman. Other examples provided as antilocution are sayings that are frequently directed by white people to non-white people, namely “You may be black, but your heart is white as mine” (p. 139) and “You’re good as I am” (p.
140).
3. Theory of Gender Discrimination
This section discusses the definition of gender discrimination and the theory of violence against women. The definition of gender discrimination presents a brief overview of gender and gender discrimination. The theory of violence against women also presents a brief overview of violence as an attempt showing gender discrimination against women.
a. Definition of Gender Discrimination
According to Macionis (2012) the world is organized around “the concepts
of feminine and masculine”, which people always call “gender” (p.294). Gender
As discussed previously, gender has become the social dimensions shaping the way people interact with others in a society. In many societies, many people still uphold the concept of women as sensitive and passive creatures. By contrast, men are described as rational and dominant creatures. In the past, the concept prevailed in many societies. Berns (1993) in Macionis (2012) supports the statement by saying that in the past, many people in the United States would consider women as “emotional, passive, and cooperative” creatures. On the contrary, people consider men as “rational, active, and competitive” (p. 297). The
concept, eventually, has shaped the way people treat men and women differently in many aspects, namely occupations, wealth, power, and other things. Since women are considered less powerful, sensitive, and cooperative, they are trusted to handle tasks requiring them to assist and serve people. On the contrary, since men are considered as powerful, rational, and competitive, they are trusted to handle tasks requiring them to lead and make decisions. Macionis (2012) defines the condition depicted previously as gender discrimination.
Gender discrimination has pictured women as less powerful, emotional, and vulnerable creatures. This image of women has practically placed the women under the domination of men. Macionis (2012) states that the gender discrimination has defined women as the minorities (p. 304). The statement is supported by Bernard (1981) in Macionis (2012), who says that women “typically have less income, wealth, education, and power” (p. 304). Furthermore he says
system has put men as the ones who deserve to maintain power and domination (p. 304).
b. Violence against women
Since gender discrimination places women under the domination of men, there are many cases existing in many societies showing men often commit violence against women. The violence spills over into women as an attempt to show that men truly have the power to dominate and control women. Macionis (2012) mentions that in the nineteenth century, men believed they had the power to control their families (p. 304). Thus, many of them still maintained to use “physical discipline” and “a great deal of manly violence” in controlling their
wives (p. 304). Violence against women occurs in many forms, namely raping, sexual harassment, and physical and verbal abuse.
B. Review on Socio-Cultural-and Historical Background
The review of socio-cultural-and historical background deals with a brief overview of African American women in 1960-1970s. The overview is divided into two sections. The first section deals with the roles of African American women as mothers, wives, and workers. The second section deals with domestic violence which is exposed against African American women.
1. African American Women in 1960s-1970s
This section deals with African American women in 1960s-1970s. I attempt to narrow down the focus of the review to revealing their roles as workers, wives, and mothers. This is attempted to get a clear depiction of African American women fulfilling their roles as workers, wives, and mothers in the novel.
a. As Workers, Wives, and Mothers
African American women in the 1960s-1970s had to face reality that they were not only born to be slaves or domestic servants but also wives and mothers. When an African American woman held a marital status, she would devote most of her time and energy to her husband and children. Genovese (1974) in his book Roll Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made agrees with the statement above. According to Genovese, African American women “generally had a longer day than their” (p. 495). In addition to their usual work, they had to cook for their
to strengthen their husbands’ self-esteem since they supported the economic and
financial benefits, which were supposed to be provided by their husbands (p. 500).
b. Domestic Violence against African American Women
The fact that the women have more complex roles than their husbands force the women to ensure their men that they do not mean to undermine the men. Practically, as Genovese mentions previously, the women keep their husbands from “avenging” an insult by convincing the husbands that they will not deprive their husbands’ roles as fathers and husbands. However, as women try to convince
their husbands about their roles, they have to receive unexpected response in the form of domestic violence. According to Jordan (n.d.), domestic violence is an “abusive behavior” in which a person performs harassments, humiliations, and
forces to maintain “power and control over his or her intimate partner” (p. 15).
Jordan notes that African American men will consider their wives as the worst enemies when the wives happen to earn more financial needs. In addition, it will also be easy for African American men to accuse their wives for taking the control over their power and dignity.
C. Theoretical Framework
Based on the formulated problem, the study intends to reveal the discrimination practiced by white employers to the African American women working as maids, as depicted in The Help. The study also examines the literary works by analyzing the cultural and historical background contained in the literary work. Thus, I use the socio-cultural and historical approach as the approach for this study. The consideration of this approach is also based on the fact that it analyzes the relationship between the author and the society in which she produces the literary work. Hence, the use of this approach will enable me to find the social condition underlying the novel. Besides, it will also enable me to reveal the relationship between the author of The Help and the society which serves as the backdrop of the novel.
white employers. In addition, the theory of racial discrimination will accommodate the effort to answer to the problem of this study, which is about how discrimination against African American women is depicted in the novel.
The review on African American women in 1960s-1970s is also presented in this study. This review focuses on the role of the women as wives, mothers, and workers. The consideration of presenting the review of African American women in 1960s-1970s is based on the fact that the setting of the novel is in the early 1960s. I also attempt to narrow down the review based on their roles as wives, mothers, and workers because this novel strongly depicts the role of African American women as wives, mothers, and workers.
22
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter is divided into three sections. They are the object of the study, the approach of the study, and the method of this study. The object of the study explains the physical description of this novel. Moreover, in this section, the information along with the summary of the novel are also presented. The approach of the study explains the approach that is employed in the study. The method of the study explains the steps used in conducting the study.
A. Object of the study
Demetrie has made this novel very interesting and honest in revealing the relationships between African American maids and the white female employers.
Besides spending two years on the New York Times’ Best Sellers list, this
novel was also awarded for many of prestigious awards, namely Amazon’s Book of the Year in 2009 and Townsend Prize for Fiction in 2009 (Claire, 2009). This
novel was adapted into screenplay in 2011 by an American director, Tate Taylor. The movie itself was awarded for many prestigious movie awards, namely Best Supporting Actress at the 84th Academy Award, Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, Best movie at BET
Awards (Finkie, 2012), and Best Film at Black Film Critics Circle in 2011 (Moralles, 2011).
B. Approach of the Study
In this thesis, I employed socio-cultural-historical approach. This approach believes that literary works represent culture and the way of life of a particular civilization. Thus, this approach is aimed at examining and analyzing literary works based on the culture and the life of a particular civilization that produce literary works.
approach helps to reveal the clear depiction of the life events of African American community (especially those people who work as maids) in Jackson, Mississippi at that time. To gain deeper understanding on the discrimination against African American community in Jackson, Mississippi, this approach would be the most suitable one.
C. Method of the Study
I used library research method in conducting the study. Library research was conducted in order to identify the sources that provide important information for this study. The sources for this study were divided into two; those were primary source and secondary source. The novel entitled The Help was used as the primary source of this study. Regarding the secondary sources of this study, the writer used some reviews of socio-cultural-historical approach, racial discrimination, sociology, and history of African-American. Those reviews were compiled from library books as well as journals which I retrieved from internet.
The second step was to read the theories and reviews applied to this study. I read theories and reviews of the history of African American, and discrimination. After reading the theories, I noted down the important quotations which really supported my study. This step really helped me in gaining a better understanding on the discrimination which was practiced against African American community.
The third step was to compare the result of analyzing the quotations in the novel and the appropriate theories and reviews in this study. This step was useful for me to reveal the differences and similarities between them. I could find how The Help and related theories depicted the discrimination against African American women. The result of comparing them, in fact, was also useful for me to answer the research problem of the study. The answer to the research problem of this study would be presented in the analysis.
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This chapter discusses the discrimination against African American women in the early 1960s as depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help. The
discrimination which is discussed in this chapter is divided into two parts. The first part discusses the discrimination encountered by African American women as workers. This part focuses on revealing the discriminatory acts which are practiced against African American women in their working places. As the discrimination in work places most likely occurs due to race, the theories of types of racial discrimination are applied to answer the research problem based on the first objective of this study.
A. Discrimination against by African American Women as Workers
(Domestic Servants or Maids)
In The Help, many discriminatory acts which are experienced by African American women when they work for white families. Those acts are revealed through the characters Aibileen Clark, Minny Jackson, other African American domestic servants, and Skeeter Phelan, a white young lady who is concerned about the life of African American women. The discriminatory acts revealed in the novel most likely occur on grounds of race and ethnicity.
In this novel, many white women employing African American women discriminate against their employees as they assume that being nice to their employees may get them into troubles. Therefore, this section discusses the discriminatory acts frequently practiced by white women against African American women working as domestic servants. Furthermore, this section also discusses the reasons underlying the discriminatory acts. This section is divided into three main parts which will be discussed as follows.
1. Segregated Facilities
themselves from enjoying facilities available in their working places (p.146). In The Help, it is also portrayed that many white female employers insult their
colored domestic servants by being reluctant to allow their maids to use the same facilities in their houses. It is also shown that this treatment is acceptable to every white employer in everyday life.
The part when Hilly Holbrook, who is the main antagonist in the novel, talks about bathroom separation may describe how white people are still reluctant to allow their colored domestic servants to use the same facilities as them.
”That’s exactly why I’ve designed the Home Help Sanitation Initiative as a disease-preventative measure. It’s a bill that requires every white home to have a separate bathroom for the colored help. I’ve even notified the surgeon general of Mississippi to see if he’ll endorse the idea. I pass.” (p. 9)
The quotation above shows that Hilly has insulted African American domestic servants through her idea of separating bathrooms for colored maids. This is also an insult when Hilly comes to an idea that sharing the same bathroom with colored maids is “plain dangerous” as the maids may “carry different
diseases” more than white people do (p. 9). From the quotation above, it can also
be seen that the idea to build a separate bathroom for colored domestic servants is simply acceptable in the white community. The acceptance of this idea is not only shown by the surgeon general of Mississippi, but Hilly’s fellow white women also agree with the idea. Elizabeth Leefolt, Hilly’s innocent best friend and Aibileen’s
following lines show the conversation between Aibileen and Elizabeth about the separate bathroom.
“Mister Leefolt and I have decided to build you your very own bathroom.” She clap her hands together, drop her chin at me. “It’s right out there in the garage.”
“Yes ma’am.” Where she think I been all this time?
“So, from now on, instead of using the guest bathroom, you can use your own right out there. Won’t that be nice?”
“Yes ma’am.” I keep ironing.
“So, you’ll use that one out in the garagenow, you understand?”
I don’t look at her. I’m not trying to make no trouble, but she done made her points.
“Don’t you want to get some tissue and go on out there and use it?” “Miss Leefolt, I really don’t really have to go right this second.”
“Oh, but when you do, you’ll go on back there and use that one now. I mean..only that one, right?” (p. 29)
Aibileen is annoyed about the fact that she is forced to use the separate bathroom. She is also annoyed about the way Elizabeth asks Aibileen to use the bathroom. She thinks Elizabeth has ignored the fact that Aibileen knows about the bathroom matter. Even though Aibileen is annoyed about the insult thrown by Elizabeth, she does not have other choices except to endure and to be completely devastated by the condition.
“I put the iron down real slow, feel that bitter seed grow in my chest, the one planted after Treelore dead. My face goes hot, my tongue twitchy. I don’t know what to say to her. All I know is, I ain’t saying it. And I know she ain’t saying what she want a say either and it’s a strange thing happening here cause nobody saying nothing and we still managing to have us a conversation.” (p. 30)
colored maids (p. 8). In fact, Aibileen’s fellow colored domestic servants also realize that using the same bathroom as their employers’ will drive them to problems. There is nothing they can do except withdrawing themselves from receiving equal facilities available in their working places. Minny, Aibileen’s best friend, even recalls the time when her mother warns her not to use same bathroom as her soon-to-be employer’s.
“Rule number two: don’t you ever let that White Lady find you sitting on her toilet. I don’t care if you’ve got to go so bad it’s coming out of your hairbraids. If there is no one out back for The Help, you find yourself a time when she’s not there in a bathroom she doesn’t use” (p. 39).
The warning shows how white people insult their colored maids by being extremely annoyed and disgusted if they find their colored maids using the same bathroom with them. Moreover, this also depicts that the insult is acceptable to the African American maids even though they might be hurt by the insult. As a matter of fact, they even warn their children, who also work for the white employers, not to use the same bathroom as their employers’ as seen in the case of Minny and her mother. Minny’s mother realizes that white people will always be reluctant and
unpleasant if they have to share same facilities with their African American workers. Thus, the only attempt to deal with the condition is withdrawing themselves from using same facilities as their employers’.
maids, who experience this action. She recalls the time when her mother warns her to use different utensils from her soon-to-be employer when she eats, cooks, or drinks.
“Rule Number Three: when you’re cooking white people’s food, you taste it with a different spoon. You put that spoon in your mouth, think nobody’s looking, put it back in the pot might as well throw it out. Rule Number Four: you use the same cup, same fork, same plate every day. Keep it in a separate cupboard and tell that white woman that’s the one you’ll use from here and out.” (p. 39)
African American maids seem to be aware of the fact that their white employers will always be disgusted and annoyed to share those facilities with them. Thus, they attempt to keep their employers well-informed about utensils that they use in order to protect their employers from having physical contact with them. In The Help, African American maids also experience the time when eating in the same dining room and watching televisions in the same living room with white employers are also unacceptable. When they have their meals, they must do it in kitchen not in dining room. This situation is depicted when Minny is about to start her job as a maid. She is also warned by her mother to “eat in the kitchen”
not in the dining room (p. 39).
Skeeter Phelan, a white woman and a protagonist in the novel, also experiences the time when she witnesses how her mother is truly worried when she watches a TV show in her living room along with her African American maid, Pascagoula.
“Now, I won’t have it, Eugenia,” Mother whispers, “I won’t have you encouraging them like that.”
“Encouraging? It’s nationwide news, Mama.” Mother sniffs. “It’s not appropriate for the two of you to watch together, she flips the channel, stops on afternoon rerun of Lawrence Welk (p. 85).
Mrs. Phelan, Skeeter’s mother, seems to be very worried that her daughter
always maintains a close relationship with every African American maid as Skeeter is known to have a very close relationship with her former maid, Constantine. The feeling of worry worsens as she catches her daughter watching news about a black student getting a chance to study at the Mississippi University (p. 85). Mrs. Phelan’s fear of this condition is not without reason. From the quotation above, it can be learnt above that Mrs. Phelan does not want Pascagoula thinks that it is acceptable to her to enjoy facilities together with her employer. In other words, Mrs. Phelan apparently still denies a chance for Pascagoula to enjoy same facilities along with their employers. Pascagoula herself also realizes that she is not supposed to be with Skeeter when watching the news about her fellow African American people. She knows exactly that Mrs. Phelan still upholds the principle that it is unacceptable for a white family to share same facilities with their maids. Thus, surrounded by guilt, she immediately withdraws herself from enjoying the facility along with Skeeter.
2. Being Slandered and Being Called As Nigra
Even though the verbal abuses are intended to the maids, the abuses are not given directly to them. However, the verbal abuses labeled to the maids have blackened the maids’ reputations in the society. Rose (1997) defines this non-direct
discriminatory act as antilocution. Antilocution is shown when certain people verbally harass a group of people which may damage the reputation of the recipients’ personalities (p. 140). He also mentioned that antilocution occurred in
the form of expressions to “indicate unfriendliness” (p. 140)
Some of the white female characters in The Help practice antilocution when they talk about some African American maids. The antilocution is usually practiced when those white female characters are annoyed with their African American maids. One example of antilocution is when Hilly refuses to use the bathroom at Elizabeth’s house. Hilly refuses to use the bathroom because she knows that Aibileen must use that bathroom. Hilly’s mother, Mrs. Walter, clarifies the reason by saying that Hilly “is upset cause the Nigra uses the inside bathroom and so do we.” (p. 8). Even though Mrs. Walter does not say it directly
to Aibileen, Aibileen knows that the word nigra is referred to her. She says, “They all look over at me straightening the silver drawer in the sideboard and I know it’s time for me to leave” (p. 8). Aibileen soon becomes annoyed as she thinks that the expression is another “mess” for her (p. 8). However, she cannot do
anything else except seething with the situation.
friend Elizabeth are shocked to know that Minny is still able to work for Celia Foote.
“Elizabeth…recommended Minny Jackson?” …
“…mean the one who stole all your mama’s silver and…” “…thought everybody in town knew that Nigra was a thief…” “…you see what she had on? Who does she…”
“I’m going to figure this out if it kills me…” (p.306)
The quotation above shows how Hilly cannot accept the fact that Minny is able to find a job. The “thief” here is labeled by Hilly as a slander given to Minny
as Minny refuses to work for her (p. 345). Hilly is upset that Minny rejects the offer and decides to look for a job from other white families. Thus, she attempts to convince everyone that Minny is a thief so that everyone will not hire her (p. 21). The slander is also given to Minny as a trick to make her work for Hilly. Unfortunately, Minny still does not want to work for her (p. 345). The slander given by Hilly is obviously considered as an antilocution as it has damaged Minny’s reputation. In the white community, Minny is now well-known as a thief.
The label attached to her in fact has led her to endure more serious problems, namely disability to support the financial life of her family and being abused by her husband (p. 21).
3. Segregated Neighborhoods
white employers. Aibileen is one of the maids who experience the condition. She lives in a colored neighborhood which takes miles from Elizabeth’s residence. She
has to go back and forth by bus in order to work (p. 12).
The condition above shows that African American women also experience segregation. Segregation is a discriminatory act requiring two groups of people with different races to have physical separation in many terms, namely public services and residences (Schaefer, 1986:p. 232). In the novel, segregation does not only impose the maids to live in the separated neighborhoods from their employers. In fact, the segregation imposes them to live in the least favorable neighborhood. The part when Aibileen describes her colored neighborhood where she lives depicts how segregation has imposed her and the other fellow African American people to live in the undesirable neighborhood.
“So Jackson’s just one white neighborhood after the next and more springing up down the road. But the colored part a town, we one big anthill, surrounded by the state land that ain’t for sale. As our numbers get bigger, we can’t spread out. Our part a town just get thicker.” (p.12)
ground as white people’s (p. 176). As Skeeter reads the law, she realizes that both of white and colored people know the law and live by it (p. 176). However, both of them do not have the courage to talk about this. This means that both colored people and white people do not have any courage to live against the law. Thus, due to the law prevailing in the society, both maids and the employers are aware of the segregation law. As long as the rule prevails, they cannot live against it.
B. Discrimination against by African American Women on Grounds of
Gender
As women, African American women are aware of the fact that they are also workers, wives, and mothers. Jones and Gooden (2003) support the statement by stating that African American women “have been both caregivers and
breadwinners” (p.1). The statement implies that African American women have to
fulfill their roles as the ones who take care of the families and support them financially.
I consider that the denial against African American women is a discriminatory act practiced against them regarding their role as women. The denial itself is shown due to the image that the African American men still maintain to show their power over their wives (Jordan, n.d.: p. 1). Having known the situation, this section will discuss discriminatory acts frequently practiced against African American women regarding their roles as women seen in the novel. Furthermore, this section also discusses the reasons underlying the discriminatory acts.
1. Being the Victims of Domestic Violence by Husbands.
The Help clearly depicts African American women as tough and
The Help depicts some moments when African American women are
exposed to domestic violence practiced by their husbands. The moments are represented through the character Minny Jackson. Besides working as a domestic servant, Minny is also a wife and a mother to five children. Her husband, Leroy, is described as a drunken and abusive man. The following lines may describe Leroy as a drunken and abusive man.
“Benny’s asthma has gotten a little better but Leroy came home last night smelling like Old Crow again. He pushed me hard and I bumped my thigh on the kitchen table. He comes home like that tonight, I’ll fix him a knuckle sandwich for supper” (p. 138)
The quotation above implies that Leroy’s drinking habit has driven him to
abuse Minny frequently. However, his drinking habit is not solely the reason he often commits domestic violence against Minny. When Leroy finds out that Minny has made mistakes, he also attacks Minny terribly.
“They fired Leroy last night! And when they ask why, his boss say Mister William Holbrook told him to do it. Holbrook told him it’s Leroy’s nigger wife the reason and Leroy come home and try to kill me with his bare hands! He throw the kids in the yard and lock me in the bathroom and say he gone light the house on fire with me locked inside!” (pp. 445-446)
Leroy gets terribly mad as he finds himself fired from his job because of Minny. Minny is involved in a book project conducted by Skeeter, the white woman who is concerned about African American maids. The book which Skeeter writes is Help. Help recalls the bittersweet experiences of African American domestic servants when they work for their white employers. Minny’s bitter
eat chocolate pie made of human excrement (p.346). Thus, as Hilly reads the Minny’s part in the book, Hilly soon gets mad and asks her husband to fire Leroy.
The unfair dismissal happening to Leroy has driven him to commit terrible domestic violence against Minny.
Leroy also gets angry if he finds Minny jobless. This is depicted when Minny is fired by Hilly on grounds of stealing. Shortly after her unfair dismissal by Hilly, Minny has to struggle to find another job in order to support her family financially. However, Hilly’s slander against Minny causes every white employer
in Jackson to refuse to hire Minny. The condition frightens Minny as she believes that Leroy is going to kill her if she does not find a new job (p. 21).
The moments when Leroy abuses Minny show that Leroy still maintains to control his family. He knows that Minny also supports the family financially. However, he seems to be afraid that Minny will usurp his role as the patriarch of the family due to Minny’s ability to earn money. He is also afraid that Minny will
not respect him as a husband. The fear that Leroy has on Minny is depicted when he says “if I didn’t hit you Minny, who knows what you become” (p. 420). The
quote shows that by committing domestic violence against Minny, Leroy still has a lot of power to control his wife.
Minny actually cannot stand the fact that Leroy uses violence to control her. She hates the time when Leroy terribly abuses her. However, she does not have the courage to stop it.
being so weak! How can I love a man who beats me raw? Why do I love a fool drunker?” (p. 420)
Minny is well-known for her tough and fearless personality among her friends. However, when it comes to her to face Leroy, she suddenly turns to be a vulnerable and weak person. She is aware of the fact that she cannot stand Leroy anymore but she does not have the courage to stop him from abusing her. She still loves and respects him as a husband and a father to her five children. Being unable to stop Leroy from abusing her, in fact, only makes her more devastated and confused to live her life with the situation.
2. Being Denied as the Breadwinners by their Husbands.
African American men still hold on to the idea that they have the power to control their families. The idea has left African American women to live under the domination of their husbands. Hine and Thompson (1999) support the statement by stating that African American women have to live entirely under the “power of men” (p. 17). Furthermore, they mention that the women cannot save money or
buy a house for them as their husbands will consider the money as theirs, they have the right to use the money for anything they want (p. 17).
theirs. The husbands take their pride in the money by considering the money as theirs.
In The Help, the situation is also represented through the story of Minny and Leroy. In addition to his abusive behavior, Leroy is also selfish. He easily takes his pride in something which clearly he does not earn. He allows Minny to work as long as it does not disadvantage him. The following lines describe Leroy as a selfish man.
“You ain’t taking my car every day, woman, what if I get the day shift and need to-
“She paying me seventy dollars cash every Friday, Leroy.” “Maybe I take Sugar’s bike.” (p. 41)
Minny asks permission to Leroy to take his car to work at Miss Celia’s
house. As she asks permission, Leroy refuses to lend her the car. He thinks that by lending Minny his car, he cannot use the car. He refuses to receive any disadvantage due to Minny’s job at Miss Celia’s house. However, when Minny
tells about the big amount of money she will earn by working there, Leroy suddenly agrees to lend Minny his car. It seems that he allows Minny to use his car as long as he can receive the money from Minny’s salary. Leroy’s act may
depict that he attempts to control his wife by refusing her to take his car to work. On the contrary, his act turns out showing him as a selfish man who does not want to suffer any loss as he suddenly agrees to lend the car due to the money he will get from Minny’s salary.
gets the response which annoys her. The following lines depict the response from Leroy which annoys Minny.
“What Leroy say when you told him you got thejob?” Aibileen asks. “Shoot. He strut around the kitchen like a plumed rooster cause he in front a the kids,” I say. “Act like he the only one supporting the family and I’m just doing my poor self entertained. Later on though, we in bed and I thought my big old bull for a husband gone cry.” (p. 46)
Minny is annoyed about the fact that Leroy gives the response showing that Minny has to thank him for her new job. It seems like Leroy has considered himself as the one who contributes for Minny’s success to get a job. Furthermore,
Leroy seems to deny the fact that Minny is also in charge of supporting his family financially. It seems like Leroy wants to be considered as the main breadwinner in the family. The response surely annoys Minny as she believes that she has been indirectly subordinated by her husband’s attitude. She needs to be respected as the
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section is the conclusions which deal with the summary of the analysis in the chapter four. The second section is suggestions of the study for English teachers and future researchers.
A. Conclusions
There are several conclusions which can be drawn from the analysis in chapter four. The analysis was conducted based on the problem formulation which attempted to reveal the depiction of discrimination against African American women in the early of 1960s depicted in Kathryn Stockett’s The Help. The analysis reveals that the African American women are coerced to endure double discrimination as they are discriminated against for being African American people and for being women.
theories of types of racial discrimination, it can be revealed that the racial discrimination depicted in The Help involve the acts of denial, insult, antilocution, and segregation. All of the acts are practically institutionalized, which means that the discriminatory acts are practiced by the white households against the African American women on a daily basis. In other words, the discriminatory acts have been considered as common norms in white households.
In terms of denial and insult, the actions most likely occur in form of denying the access of African American women to receive equal treatments and facilities with their white employers. Denial and insults occur as the white employers are reluctant to allow their African American maids to use the same facilities at their houses. It can be seen through the story of Aibileen Clark, Minny Jackson, and Pascagoula. Aibileen is coerced to endure racial discrimination by her white employer, Elizabeth Leefot, as she is not allowed to use the same bathroom as Elizabeth’s. Minny and Pascagoula also experience the same thing when they firstly start their job as domestic servants. The denials and insults occur as their white employers take the measure of physical and social contacts with the African American women.
The Help also depicts racial discriminatory acts which refer to
antilocution. Antilocution is the act of slurring a person or a society in order to
job as every family in Jackson considers her as a thief. Also, Minny and her fellow African American maids are called as nigra, a condescending and offensive label to African American people. Nigra is often said to African American maids when the white employers are annoyed with them.
Another type of racial discrimination endured by the African American women seen in The Help is segregation. The segregation seen in The Help occurs in terms of segregated housing system. African American domestic servants reside in the different neighborhood from their employers. The condition requires them to take miles away in order to work. In addition, the condition forces them to live in the undesirable neighborhood, which is small and over populated. However, they cannot move to other neighborhood as the action is considered as against the law. The racial discriminatory acts have surely left African American women worse off. However, they do not have the courage to prevent those acts from happening to them. They can only withdraw themselves and seethe inside silently.
The Help also depicts the time when African American women are
