1 A Thesis
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
MARGARETHA HARIMURTI HAGNI LOHENING Student Number: 011214156
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
2007
A SET OF SUPPLEMENTARY ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS USING SHORT STORIES TO PROMOTE
THE STUDENTS’ VALUES OF LIFE FOR THE SIXTH GRADE
OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
A Thesis on
A SET OF SUPPLEMENTARY ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS USING SHORT STORIES TO PROMOTE
THE STUDENTS’ VALUES OF LIFE FOR THE SIXTH GRADE
OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
By
MARGARETHA HARIMURTI HAGNI LOHENING Student Number: 011214156
Approved by
Major Sponsor
Drs. Concilianus L.M., M.A October, 18th 2007
Co-Sponsor
C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. October, 18th 2007
A Thesis on
By
MARGARETHA HARIMURTI HAGNI LOHENING Student Number: 011214156
Defended before the Board of Examiners on October 25th 2007
and Declared Acceptable
Board of Examiners
Chairperson : A. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A. ……… Secretary : Drs. P.G. Purba, M.Pd. ……… Member : Drs. Concilianus L.M., M.A. ……… Member : C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. ……… Member : Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd. ………
Yogyakarta, October 25th 2007
Faculty of Teachers Training and Education Sanata Dharma University
Dean,
…Today I will walk with my hands in God ….
…Today I will trust in Him, and not be afraid ….
(Unanimous)
This thesis is dedicated to:
My Lord, Jesus and Mother Mary
My Beloved Mother and Father
My Brothers and Sisters
Sanata Dharma University
All the People in My Life
All children in the world
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis I wrote does not contain the works or parts of the works of other people, except those cited in the quotations and bibliography, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, October 25th 2007 The writer,
Margaretha Harimurti Hagni Lohening
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To all of you …
Writing this thesis is a wonderful experience for me and I just wanted you to know what a joy it was to prepare and to write it. Furthermore, it was indeed a “miracle” experience that gave me the opportunities to work with some of the best people. Once again, I cannot begin to thank and tell you how much I appreciate your tremendous support you have given. I am without a doubt grateful …
My praises and worship are foremost devoted to Father in Heaven for giving me living testimony of His amazing divine grace, for giving me great people as a part of my life, all of you!. My deep gratitude goes to Father and Mother, my thesis is a mere reflection of their parental compassion. I am thankful for teaching me love and giving me experiences of being loved and for putting up with all my tantrums throughout the years. I might make a kind of masterpiece, but they make life easy for me, it is so much more worthwhile. Being able to spend my blessed life with them is truly a miracle. My Brothers and Sisters (Mbak Maria, Mas Hari and family, Mas Danang and Mbak Yuli, Mas Diro and Mbak Ana, Mbak Hening, Mbak Murti, and Dek Pamor) I am thankful for all such precious experiences as a great big family. I am thankful for all affections and helps, “how wonderful to have brothers and sisters like you … we have made a great team!”
Mr. Concilianus Laos Mbato, M.A., his expertise is something that I admire and appreciate. I owe his a debt of gratitude for his guidance and all the spirit full and valuable inputs when I lost my courage to finish this thesis. He is a great teacher anyone could hope to find. Mrs. Tutyandari, S.Pd., All her honest
feedback and her long hours for reading and correcting my thesis have placed me in her debt. I am thankful for her patience in correcting my thesis. I could never have made this thesis without her help. Mr Drs. Jambari., I really honor his generosity for giving me the chance to conduct the research with his students.
Mbak Tien, Mas Alex & Ika, How can I begin to thank to them for the computer? I could never have made this thesis without their wonderful contribution. All the priests in Paingan Pastoral ( Romo Greg SJ, Romo Agung SJ, Romo Spilane SJ, and Romo Suparno SJ) I am humbly thankful to them for being my second parents during my study. For all the sharing moments, all the life teaching and for the time for answering my questions to build this thesis. My beloved nephew and nieces (Amabel, Vero,Narita & Veve) their cuteness and their innocence inspired me to write this thesis. I wish them all the best I did it for them.
Friends of Santo E’gidio & Equality Community( Mbak Wulan, Aan, Jhon Pengki, Mas Frans, Bang Teddy, Bang Daling, Vindy, Don, Anand , Mbak Lia, Mas Agung, Mbak Aiwen, Octa, Bang Martin, Irna, Mbak Ning, Calista, Tris, Dimas, Ahok, & others ) for the lasting honesty and great sharing moments that only true friends can give I am humbly thankful. ‘To have you all is a miracle guys’. My great gratitude goes to my dearest, Yoseph Agato Sabre, He is one of the most precious gifts from God. With his love and passion, he always accompanies and strengthens me to walk out through my difficulties and sadness. He is the only one whom I rely on and with whom I share, ‘I know I can trust you’. Stevie Pranata, getting to know him during the last couple of awesome years has been fantastic! I am grateful for his love, ‘I will keep our stories deep in my heart’, ‘I wish you all the best’. Mas Victor, I amthankful his kindness for reading and
correcting my thesis, thanks for giving me supports to finish this thesis and many thanks for being the true friend! I am blessed that he is my friend. The great gratitude also goes to my dearest friends; Lia, Margentul, Koh Bobby, Marina, Ratri, Bayu, Puput, Nyot-Nyot, Tekek, Lintang, Bonchu, Andre, mbak Della and the other 2001’ners. I would like to let them know how much I appreciate our friendship and the times we shared, laughed, studied, played, and chatted together.
I am thankful to the teachers and my dearest students in Catur Tunggal IV Elementary School who allowed me to do the research and teach me how to be a good teacher. Thanks for our good cooperation and friendship. Flamboyan 217 community (Fitri, Weni, Asih, Melly, Monik, Lita & others) ‘you guys are so good!!’ La Vitta E’ Bella members ( Victor, Handy, Christine, Buu, Sensy, Nanang, Mbak Dinar, Widuri, Swanti, Pris, Suster Iren, Septi, Lily, Ninda, and Yani ) ‘you are the best, you are the best, you are the best of them all!!’ I value our continued outstanding friendship. That is something to be proud of. Jogja AIKIDO members, I am thankful for all the funny and great moments we shared together, ‘RELAX guys!!’ My thank also goes to Mr Guntur, Mrs Umi & family, for the warm and cozy place during my study.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank everyone who coloring my life and whom I cannot mention one by one. ‘Thank you for you all’,’ I know I would never be a great person without you all’. May God bless us.
My sincere gratitude is also dedicated to my self who is willing to struggle optimally and encounter all the obstacles without surrendering. Finally, I did it!
Margaretha Harimuti H.L
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
PAGE OF APPROVAL ... ii
PAGE OF ACCEPTANCE ... iii
PAGE OF DEDICATION ... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALLY ... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ... xiv
LIST OF TABLES ... xv
ABSTRACT ... xvi
ABSTRAK ... xviii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background ... 1
B. Problem Identification ... 3
C. Problem Limitation ... 4
D. Problem Formulation ... 5
E. Research Objectives ... 5
F. Research Benefits ... 5
G. Definition of Terms ... 7
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW 10
A. Theoretical Review ... 10
1. KTSP (Educational Unit Level Curriculum) ... 10
a. The Principle of KTSP ... 11
b. The Implementation of KTSP ... 12
2. Elementary School Students ... 12
a. The Six Grade Students ... 13
b. How They Learn ... 15
3. Reading Materials ... 16
a. The Proper Reading Materials for the Elementary Grade Students ... 16
b. The Reading Materials Form ... 17
c. The Values of Reading Materials Form for Children ... 17
4. Value ... 19
a. The Nature of Value ... 19
b. The Definition of Value ... 20
c. Values in Education ... 20
d. The Elements of Values Learning... 23
e. Twelve Unit of Living Values Education Program (LVEP) ... 24
5. Designing Materials Theory ... 28
a. Integrated Materials ... 28
b. Task-based Learning ... 31
6. Instructional Design Models ... 33
a. Kemp’s Model ... 33
b. Borich’s Model ... 35
c. Walt Dick’s and Lou Carey’s Model ... 39
B. Theoretical Framework ... 43
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 47
A. Research Method ... 47
a. Survey Study ... 48
1) Pre-design Survey ... 49
2) Post-design Survey ... 50
B. Research Participants ... 51
C. Research Instruments ... 52
1. Questionnaire ... 52
2. Interview ... 52
D. Research Procedures ... 53
E. Data Analysis and Procedures ... 53
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 57
A. Research Results ... 57
1. The Results of Pre-design Survey ... 57
a. Gaining Knowledge of Some Inputs ... 58
b. Determining Goals, Topics and General Purposes ... 63
c. Recognizing Values Assumption ... 69
d. Listing Subject Content ... 70
f. Designing the Learning Materials ... 79
1. The Result of Post-design Survey ... 79
a. The Description of the Participants ... 80
b. Data Presentation ... 80
1) Descriptive Statistics ... 80
2) Participants’ Suggestions Opinions, Comments, and criticisms on the Designed Materials ... 82
B. Discussions ... 83
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 84
A. Conclusions ... 84
B. Suggestions ... 87
1. For the Elementary School Level Teachers ... 87
2. For the Elementary School Students ... 88
3. For Future Researchers ... 88
REFERENCES 89
APPENDICES 93
Appendix A: Questionnaires for the Needs Survey ... 94
Appendix B: Informal Interview List for the Needs Survey ... 96
Appendix C: Letters of Permission ... 97
Appendix D: Letter of Enquiry for the Post-design Survey ... 98
Appendix E: Questionnaires of the Post-design Survey ... 99 Appendix F: Syllabus and Lesson Plans ... 101 Appendix G: Presentation of the Designed Materials ... 119
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Instructional Model ... 34
Figure 2.2: Borich’s Instructional Model ... 36
Figure 2.3: Dick’s and Carey’s Instructional Design Model ... 42
Figure 2.3: Steps of Conducting the Study ... 46
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1: Twelve Units of LVEP... 25
Table 3.1: Description of Post-design Survey Participants ... 51
Table 3.2: The Descriptive Statistics of the Participants’ Opinion on the Designed Materials ... 55
Table 4.1: The Description of the Topic Chosen ... 60
Table 4.2: The Description of Teaching-learning chosen ... 61
Table 4.3: The Description of the Result of the Interview ... 61
Table 4.4: The List of Topic and Title ... 64
Table 4.5: The Description of Basic Competence and Learning indicators ... 65
Table 4.6: The Description of Values Assumptions ... 69
Table 4.7: The Teaching-learning Activities and Sources ... 72
Table 4.8: Description of the Post-design survey participants ... 80
Table 4.9: Descriptive Statistics ofParticipants’ Opinion ... 81
ABSTRACT
Lohening, Margaretha Harimurti Hagni. 2007. A Set of Supplementary English Instructional Materials Using Short Stories to Promote the Students’ Values of Life for the Sixth Grade of Elementary School Students. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
This study dealt with designing a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students. The background of this study was the function of school to develop not only the students’ academic competences but also the students’ personal competences such as the students’ values of life. These two competences should be developed equally. However, to develop the students’ personal competences while teaching the academic competence at the same time is not easy. This study therefore, concerned with short stories as main media to teach English and to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students. The design can be considered as one of the supplementary materials that could help students to build their academic and personal competences equally.
This study concerned two problems. The first problem dealt with how is a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students designed. The second problem dealt with what does the designed materials look like. In this study the writer applied the integrated skills theory using task-based approach.
In order to answer the first problem, the writer modified Kemp’s, Borich’s and Dick and Carey’s instructional design models to find the appropriate framework in designing the materials. The steps were rearranged as follows: (1) Gaining Knowledge of Some Inputs by distributing questionnaires to the sixth grade of elementary school students and by doing informal interview with the English teachers of elementary school and English for children instructors , (2) Determining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes, (3) Recognizing and developing Values Assumption, (4) Listing Subject Contents, (5) Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Sources, (6) Designing the Learning Materials and (7) Evaluating by distributing questionnaires to the English teachers of elementary school, English for children instructors and to a lecturer of English Department and Revising the Designed Materials based on the result of the evaluators.
In order to answer the second problem, the writer presented the designed materials. The designed materials had been revised and improved according to the evaluators’ relevant suggestions. The materials consist of eight units, they were 1) Hi, it’s me, 2) My Beautiful Home, 3) We are friends, 4) Let’s Do Your Very Best, 5) The True Happiness, 6) Do You Ever Feel This, 7) Naughty or Not, and 8) Are You a Her. Each unit consist of six sections, namely 1) Think First, 2) Story Time, 3) Our English Today, 4) How About You, 5) What Do I Think Then and 6) Let’s Have Fun
The statistical computation of the evaluators on the designed materials showed that the grand mean was 3, 95. It means that the materials were acceptable and suitable for the sixth grade of Elementary school students to promote the
students’ values of life, generally well developed, but still needed to revise and to improve the quality of the developed materials.
Finally, the writer hopes that the materials would contribute the education paradigm to make the teachers emphasize the importance of teaching academic and personal competence of their students by helping them to understand and to promote their values of life such as respect, responsibility, tolerance, peace, freedom, cooperation, happiness, humility, honesty, simplicity, unity and love.
ABSTRAK
Lohening, Margaretha Harimurti Hagni. 2007. A Set ofSupplementary English Instructional Materials Using Short Stories to Promote the Students’ Values of Life for the Sixth Grade of Elementary School Students. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Studi ini membahas tentang penyajian seperangkat materi tambahan pelajaran Bahasa Ingris menggunakan cerita-cerita pendek untuk mengembangkan nilai-nilai kehidupan siswa bagi siswa kelas enam Sekolah Dasar. Latar belakang dari studi ini adalah beranjak dari fungsi sekolah untuk mengembangkan tidak hanya kemampuan akademik siswa tetapi juga pengembangan kemampuan personal seperti pengembangan akan nilai-nilai kehidupan. Dua kemampuan ini harus dikembangkan secara seimbang. Tetapi, mengembangkan kemampuan personal dan kemampuan akademis disaat yang bersamaan tidaklah mudah. Oleh karena itu, dalam studi ini penulis menggunakan cerita-cerita pendek sebagai pokok media untuk mengajarkan Bahasa Inggris dan untuk mengembangkan nilai-nilai hidup siswa, untuk siswa kelas enam Sekolah Dasar. Seperangkat materi ini dapat dipertimbangkan sebagai salah satu materi tambahan yang dapat membantu siswa mengembangkan kemampun akademik dan kemampuan personal mereka secara seimbang. Dalam studi ini penulis menggunakan teori integrated skills.
Studi ini memberi perhatian pada dua masalah. Masalah pertama membahas tentang metode bagaimana penyajian seperangkat materi tambahan pelajaran Bahasa Inggris menggunakan cerita-cerita pendek untuk mengembangkan nilai-nilai kehidupan siswa, bagi siswa kelas enam Sekolah Dasar. Masalah kedua membahas seperti apakah penyajian seperangkat materi pelajaran tersebut. Dalam studi ini penulis menerapkan teori integritas dan menggunakan pendekatan task-based.
Untuk menjawab masalah pertama, penulis mengacu dan membuat kombinasi atas model desain dari Borich, Kemp, dan Dick dan Carey untuk mendapatkan kerangka yang sesuai dalam mendisain materi. Kerangka tersebut terdiri dari (1) Mengumpulkan berbagai masukan dengan menyebarkan questioner kepada guru-guru bahasa Inggris sekolah dasar, instruktur bahasa Inggris untuk anak-anak dan siswa kelas enam sekolah dasar (2) Menentukan sasaran, topik dan tujuan umum, (3) Mengenali asumsi nilai-nilai yang akan dikembangkan, (4) Membuat daftar isi dari materi, (5) Meyeleksi aktivitas pembelajaran dan sumbernya (6) Mendisain materi pembelajaran, dan (7) mengevaluasi dengan menyebarkan questioner kepada guru-guru bahasa Inggris sekolah dasar, instruktur bahasa Inggris untuk anak-anak dan kepada dosen program pendidikan bahasa Inggris dan merevisi materi yang telah dikembangkan berdasarkan hasil yang didapat dari evaluator.
Untuk menjawab masalah kedua, penulis menyajikan materi yang telah dikembangkan. Materi ini terdiri dari delapan unit yaitu 1) Hi, it’s me, 2) My Beautiful Home, 3) We are friends, 4) Let’s Do Your Very Best, 5) The True Happiness, 6) Do You Ever Feel This, 7) Naughty or Not, and 8) Are You a Her.setiap unit terdiri dari enam sesi yaitu 1) Think First, 2) Story Time, 3) Our English Today, 4) How About You, 5) What Do I Think Then and 6) Let’s Have Fun
Dari penelitian paska-desain terhadap materi yang telah dibuat didapatkan jumlah rata-rata sebesar 3,95. Hasil dari penelitian memperlihatkan bahwa materi
yang telah disusun layak, secara umum disusun dengan baik, tetapi masih membutuhkan beberapa revisi dan perbaikan kualitas.
Akhirnya penulis berharap bahwa materi yang telah disusun dapat memberi kontribusi paradigma pendidikan bagi para guru untuk menekankan pentingnya mengajarkan pengetahuan dan pengembangan kepribadian siswanya, dengan membantu siswa memahami dan membina nilai-nilai kehidupan siswa seperti penghargaan, tanggung jawab, toleransi, kedamaian, kemerdekaan, kerjasama, kebahagiaan, kerendahan hati, kejujuran, kesederhanaan, kesatuan dan cinta.
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This study is intended to produce a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students. This chapter introduces the study elaborately. There are several matters in this chapter. They are; background of the study, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms.
A. Background of the Study
English has gained rising popularity over the years in Indonesia. English has become an international language which is used in Indonesia in almost all aspects of life; hence English is an important language to learn, to develop science, technology and culture and to build relationship with other countries in the world. (Depdikbud, 1994:3)
create teaching-learning activities and strategies that help and motivate students to have good basic knowledge and also good personality before entering the next level. Drake (1999) states that education fails if its outcome is an individual student, who is intelligent, skilled and knowledgeable but unable to live, work and make positive relationship with others. English, one of the subjects taught in school, should create teaching-learning activities that can facilitate the students to improve their academic and personal competence. If the students do not have good personal competence, this will influence the students’ mastery, not only English but also in other subjects.
To gain the objectives of curriculum, the writer designs a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students. On account of the objectives of the curriculum, the writer designs a set of supplementary English instructional materials to provide the students with some learning experiences through reading short stories. The use of short stories as reading materials can facilitate the students to learn both cognitive and affective domain. Reading is often used as a means to facilitate teaching-learning activities or to increase the results of academic learning. Moreover, reading can be used to improve the students’ personal competence. Personal competence can be achieved if the students have values in their lives as their guidance. As supported by Klausmier and Goodwin (1997: 375-377) that reading can be used to facilitate value learning in a way that reading can be used as an exemplary model and a way to extend informative experience.
stories to promote the students’ values of life, such as story telling, singing a song, answering questions from the story, games, making handicraft, discussion, and playing drama. Those techniques are meant to help the students practice the language skills, and to support the teaching-learning activities to motivate students and to make the students enjoy their learning activities and also to promote the students’ values of life.
Teaching children is very different from teaching adults. They frequently change their mood every other minute and they are unlikely to be interested in reading stories by themselves because they have low ability in reading and writing. Thus, educators should create a variety of techniques in teaching English, which are interesting and enjoyable for elementary children. According to Petty, et al.(1989: 85) young children learn a language best when they have meaningful experiences with it. The variation of techniques also means to help the teachers to explain and to practice both language skills and language elements. Moreover, through reading short stories the students can learn new words faster by looking for the pictures. By presenting the pictures in the given story, the students are assisted to understand the story and the meaning of the words as well as how to use those words correctly.
B. Problem Identification
The sixth grade of elementary school students are still beginners in learning English. It will be hard for the students to master language skills if the teacher does not giving interesting materials. Using short stories can provide students’ interests. Using short stories the students are helped to memorise not only language skills but also the value taught through the stories.
It is not easy to teach values of life while teaching language skills at the same time. The teachers need strategies and creativity in presenting the materials to students. The students of the sixth grade elementary school are still in the beginning level and are young and it will be hard to attract their attention. Therefore, the main duty of the teacher is to introduce language skills by using interesting materials. By doing so, the student will gain pleasure well as knowledge.
By observing some elementary school teachers and analyzing today’s English materials for elementary school, the writer found that values of life in teaching English were not popular. Some of the teachers are only focused on language skills development and ignoring self development. The writer found some difficulties in presenting and making creative materials to make their students interested in learning English. Based on those problems, the writer designed interesting materials for the sixth grade of elementary school students not only to develop students’ language skills but also to promote the students’ values of life.
C. Problem limitation
supplementary English instructional materials using short stories for the sixth grade of elementary school students. Secondly, the writer develops supplementary English instructional material for the sixth grade of elementary school students using short stories as the main materials. Thirdly, the materials are focused on both developing students’ English ability and promoting the students’ values of life.
D. Problem Formulation
Based on the problems faced in the teaching of English in the elementary school, this study is aimed at answering the following questions:
1. How is a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students designed?
2. What does a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students look like?
E. Research objectives
The objectives of this research are to answer the questions on the problem formulation. The first objective is to set up the supplementary English instructional materials design for the sixth grade of elementary school students through short stories. The second objective is to present a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students.
F. Research Benefits
the sixth grade of elementary school students. Hopefully, the result of this study will be beneficial for the English teachers, the sixth grade students of elementary school and those who are interested in teaching English for children.
1. For English teachers
They are provided with a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life. Then, it is expected that they will be motivated to be creative in developing the materials for the students in the teaching learning activities.
2. For the sixth grade of elementary school students
The writer hopes that this study will help the sixth grade of elementary school students in learning English through sort stories. Hopefully, the students will enjoy the process of teaching and learning because the materials are interesting and easy to understand, based on their interests. Hence, they can enrich both their knowledge and self-development through the teaching learning activities.
3. For those who have an interest in teaching English for children
G. Definition of Terms
There are some terms mentioned in the title of this thesis that need to define in order to avoid misinterpretations. They are:
1. Instructional Material Design
The terms instructional material design used refers to a set of planning activities that must take fully into account the learning conditions that need to be established in order to have the desired effects (Gagne & Briggs, 1978:5). According to the definition, the writer formulates the term instructional materials design as a set of planning activities that consider the learning condition in order to promote student’s values of life using short stories for the sixth grade of elementary school students.
2. Short Story
The term short story in this study is a type of literature, which has the following characteristics:
Ross and Wallace (1953:xv) define ‘short story’ as a short narrative, usually fictitious, almost always in prose, which creates a mood, illuminates a character or two, develops a single series of events. The future explanation normally the maximum for short story is approximately fifteen thousand words, or fifty pages. In this study the writer formulates short story as a kind of narrative that the content has no more than three thousand words or two pages maximum.
3. Value
life. Value plays a key role in guiding action, resolving conflicts, giving direction and coherence to life. Values are motivators, not only in daily actions, but also over the long haul (Kalven, 1982:8). According to the definition above, the writer formulates value as a standard that one has to judge about objects or events and guides one to act and to see their life. 4. Values of life
The term value of life is defined as moral value assigned to life in general, or to specific living organisms (http://wikipedia.org )
5. Promote
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995: 927) “to promote” is to help the progress of something; to encourage or support something. To promote also means to raise somebody to a higher position or rank. Adopting these definitions, the writer formulates the word ‘promote’ to help students to make the progress of their own values of life to a higher understanding and awareness by using short stories for the sixth grade of elementary school students.
6. Personal Competence
10 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides the theories that are related to this study. This chapter is divided into two parts; first is theoretical review and second is theoretical framework. Theoretical review consists of all theories in discussing the problems in the problem formulation. Theoretical framework consists of the theories used in developing the design.
A. Theoretical Review
This section is concerned to the related theories to support the accomplishment of the study. Six major areas of inquiry are discussed; they are (1),
KTSP (Educational Unit Level Curriculum) (2) Elementary school students, (3) Reading Material, (4) Value (5) Designing Materials Theory, and (6) Instructional design.
1. KTSP (Educational Unit Level Curriculum)
a. The Principles of KTSP
The objectives of applying KTSP for the students as set by national education and culture department (www.e-kebumen.net) are to:
1) learn to be faithful and believe in God 2) learn for understanding and experiencing 3) enable to do and to act effectively
4) learn for living together in good relationship and being useful for others
5) learn for finding and building the active-creative-effective-pleased characteristics.
The teacher and or materials designers should regard the principle of developing KTSP curriculum while creating teaching learning activities. The principles of KTSP according to Halim Fathanin (2006: 17) are discussed as follows:
1) orientate to the ability, development, and needs of students and their surrounding environment
2) vary and integrate
3) notice to science, technology, and art growth 4) have relevancy with the students’ life necessity 5) coherence and cohesion
6) learn for life time
7) balance with national and regional business
b. The Implementation of KTSP
Abdullah Yasid (National Journal, February 10, 2007) states that the teaching learning activities are supposed to give chance for the students to explore, find, do, and test their own understanding by asking about the object they learn. It means that the teachers are required to have good creativity and high initiative to arrange their own teaching-learning strategies based on the students’ needs and students’ ability. This study then is hoped could inspire the teacher to become more creative to make interesting teaching-learning activities in their class.
KTSP theory is relevant to the purposes of this study to develop both the students’ language skills and life skills especially their values of life, since the subject matter and teaching-learning materials are based on the students needs. Besides, KTSP curriculum objectives consider the students’ language skills and characters development. Moreover KTSP curriculum takes into account the principle of student-centered activity that gives the students chance to explore, find, do, and test their own understanding by asking about the object they learn. This curriculum support the writer to design a set of supplementary English instructional materials using short stories focused on promoting the students’ values of life using integrated materials.
2. Elementary School students
points out that the elementary school is the first part of nine-year system of the elementary education program, which has the duration of six years (Sudijatno, 1995:128).
a. The Six Grade Students
The subject of this study is the sixth grade students of the elementary school, and they are considered to be in the middle childhood. Lefrancois (1986: 391) stated that middle childhood is one of stages of child development. This stage rages from age seven to twelve. Therefore, it can be concluded that the sixth grade of elementary school students belong to this stage. Children in this period of time also show many other characteristics in physical, emotional and social aspects. They are in an intermediate social and emotional state between early childhood and adolescence. Children in the middle childhood are curious. They usually want to make sense out of how things work, gain competence and control over them. They are open, receptive and perceptive (Holt, 1967: 169). This means that it is very important for a child in this age need to get all the information they need to fulfill their curious passions. However all the information they receive has to be selected.
Bleckie (in Wasiati, 1995:41) says that children grow at different speeds even though the stages of growth are the same for all, the age at which they reach is varies widely and the differences between them are the product of very complex interaction, which begins at conception between heredity at intelligence. Therefore to see each student as an individual with his/her own ability in the speed to understand the material is needed.
(1) Tune out information: the child is better able than younger children to ignore irrelevant information.
(2) Selective attention: even when the child does not tune out incoming information, the older child is better able to respond only to those aspects of the stimulation that are important to the solution of a problem. This skill increases with age. While a six-year old child is better than a four-year old one at selective responding, a twelve-year-old is better than either of these younger children.
(3) Flexibility: another attention characteristic which develops problem-solving capabilities is attention flexibility, which is the extent that an individual can shift attention from one characteristic of a problem to another in order to arrive at a correct selection.
(4) Reduced perceptual dominance: a fourth change in attention is the child’s movement away from attention process dominated by physical properties.
The development of social relationship in the middle childhood period consists of 3 stages. Leffrancois (1986: 320 – 321) states these three stages.
(1) Dependent stage: the children depend on the family socially, emotionally, and physically.
(2) Conflict stage: the children find themselves between two forces. On the one hand, there is his former allegiance to his parents, his continued love for them. On the other hand there is a newly found allegiance to his friend and his need to be accepted by his peers.
(3) Independent stage: this does not mean that child breaks all bonds with his family and ties himself irrevocably to groups of peers, but simply that he has achieved an independence allowing functioning in the milieu of peers that becomes important to him.
b. How They Learn
In normal conditions, the thought of children of elementary school age develops gradually and calmly. Memory of children of 8 to 12 years reaches to the highest and greatest intensity. The ability to learn something by heart is their strongest competency (Kartono 1979: 147).
to handle all types of concrete problems. The thinking of twelve-year-old children is symbolic. Although usually related to the real objects or situations the twelve-years-old children are easily imagined and their thinking have refined. Furthermore, they learn the verbal skills by expressing what they imagine and think.
3. Reading Materials
This study is using short stories as a kind of reading material to teach elementary school children. Although, it does not mean that this study focuses only on developing reading skills. Through short story the teacher also could use the reading material to teach other language skills such as listening, speaking and writing, and language elements such as pronunciation, vocabulary and structure.
By the explanation below the writer tries to give the explanations and the support statements from some experts, so the readers have a deeper knowledge about reading material especially short stories for the elementary school students to promote the students’ values of life as the focus of this study.
a. The Proper Reading Materials for the Elementary Grade Students
According to Poniah and Tay as cited by Wijaya in his book “Teaching and Learning English in Challenging Situation” (1992: 92) there are three reading material factors for the elementary school children. These factors are summarized as follows:
a. Reading material should be neither easy nor difficult.
b. The length of the reading material should be long enough for the students’ thinking process. The reading material should not too long or too short.
c. The reading material should have a topic that is related to the students’ lives. If a suitable topic is chosen, but the language is a little too difficult for particular groups of students, some simplification could be made.
Considering the principles above, the writer selected short stories as the main material because short story is challenging and a proper material for the sixth grade of elementary school students.
b. The Reading Materials Form
The form of reading used for the students in elementary school is narration. Narration is the form of writing used to relate the story of acts and events. Narration places occurrences in time and tells what happened according to the natural time sequence (Whinson & Burks, 1980: 378). Furthermore, they say that types of narration are short story, novel, new stories, also our conversation and our writing as letters. Thus, that is why we use narration as the form of reading material for the students of elementary schools. And in this study the writer chooses short stories as the main source of supplementary English materials to promote the students’ values of life.
c. The Values of Reading Materials Form for Children
activities of reading such as dramatizing the story can help the children to develop their physical development.
Tarigan (1995: 6) states that in general, literature conveys intrinsic and extrinsic values. Children can take benefits and values for their own. It means that they gain intrinsic values. The following ideas are based on Tarigan’s idea (1995: 6)
From a story, children can receive joy and fun. A story appeals to children’s imagination and curiosity. It gives a new experience that could develop their vision as human beings. A story also has an important role in inheriting the culture from one generation to the next generation.
Besides, extrinsic values of literature can influence language, cognitive behaviors, personality, and social development of the children. Reading a story may facilitate the children’s language development. Since language relates with children intellectual activities, reading short story gives them activity in developing both their intellectual and language development. The more they read, the more they can think systematically. It means that reading a story can support children’s cognitive development as well.
Based on the Tarigan’s idea, the writer concludes that short story is a proper and good source to develop both intellectual and personality of the students in an attractive way.
4. Value
In this study, values are used as the focus in teaching learning process to teach English for the sixth grade of elementary school students. In designing the materials the writer is still concerned about teaching English skills.
a. The Nature of Value
According to Lickona (1991: 38) values are two kinds: Moral and nonmoral. Moral values tell us what we ought to do. We must abide by them even when we would rather not. Nonmoral values carry no obligation, they express what we want or like to do. Moral values can be further defined into two categories:
universal and nonuniversal. Universal moral values bind all persons everywhere because they affirm our fundamental human worth and dignity. We have a right and even a duty to insist that all people behave in accordance with these universal moral values. Nonuniversal moral values by contrast do not carry a universal moral obligation.
b. The Definition of Value
every human being through their whole life experiences and everyone has their own values as the main consideration to decide and to react about something which happens in his/her life. Value plays a key role in guiding action, resolving conflicts, giving direction and coherence to life (Kalven 1982:7). Kalven also states that values are the heart of the process of human maturing (Kalven 1982:10). Developing a human means develops their values as self-control. Rath and his colleague define values as those individual beliefs, attitude, activities or feelings. It means that values are more concerned with self or mental view about ones’ life. c. Values in Education
Ten good reasons why school should be making a clearheaded and wholehearted commitment to promote values and develop good character according to Lickona (1991: 12) are:
1. There is a clear and urgent need
Increasingly hurting themselves and others, and decreasingly concerned about contributing to the welfare of their fellow human beings are the phenomena found in the lives of young people today.
2. Transmitting values is and always has been the work of civilization
The values of education are needed in society not only to survive but also to thrive to keep their self intact and to keep it growing toward conditions which they face in their lives that support the full human development of all members. 3. The school’s role as moral educator becomes even more vital.
In the time when millions of children receive little moral teaching from their parents and where value- centered influences such as church or temple are also absent from their lives, the schools take the vital position as the moral educators. 4. There is common ethical ground even in our value-conflicted society.
Values can engage in public moral education and do not oppose the pluralistic society. Indeed pluralism itself is not possible without agreement on value. 5. Democracies have a special need for moral education, because democracy is
governed by the people themselves.
6. There is no such thing as value-free education.
Everything a school does teaches values, including the way teachers and adults treat students, the way the principal treats teachers, the way the school treats parents, and the way students are allowed to treat school staff and each other. So, values as the control to make the school become the place where values built and practiced at the same time.
7. The great question facing both the individual person and the human race are moral question.
Values make people more aware about themselves and also their relationship with others and nature by asking themselves. The utmost existential importance is “how should I live my life?” for all humanity. The two most important questions facing us are “How can we live with each other? “ And “how can we live with nature?”
8. There is broad-based, growing support for values education in the school. The support comes from many directions for example the government, which has identified value education as essential in the fight against drugs and crime. And perhaps the most significant, support for value education comes from parents who are looking for help in a world where it is harder than ever to raise good children.
9. An unabashed commitment to moral education is essential if we are to attract and keep good teachers
10. Value education is a double job.
Teaching values in school is not only the responsibility of the school itself, but also it can make a positive difference in the school atmosphere. If values exist and it is practice by the students in school it will make a positive difference in moral attitudes and behaviors of students. It will be easier for the teacher to teach students to learn.
Schools wishing to do value education need to be confident that: (1) there are objectively worthwhile, universally agreed-upon values that schools can and should teach in a pluralistic society. (2) Schools should not only expose students to these values but also help them to understand, internalize, and act upon such values.
d. The Elements of Values Learning
Moreover, in reading lesson, four important elements of value learning are present. These elements are stimulators, activities, questions, and teachers (Frankel, 1997: 85)
Regarding the first element in reading lesson, the stimulator is the text. Texts provide students with information or data that stimulates them to think about values. Texts also provide guidelines for students to reflect values (Frankel, 1997: 86). Here, short story has a function not only to give the information as the stimulus to think about values but also has the function to present the model to reflect the values itself.
Frankel (1997: 103) stated that activities such as discussion and summary of a text help students understand and evaluate what they have read. Students can also process value by relating values that they read in the text with their own ideas and experience.
The third element is questions. In facilitating values learning in reading lesson, questions are needed because they stimulate students to think about values in the text and consider their own value. Frankel (1997: 86) argues that the essence of any exploration of values lies in the questions a teacher asks. It means questions can not be separated from the process of promoting the students’ values of life.
The fourth element important in values learning is teachers. Activities and questions need the fourth element in order to be done efficiently and effectively. Teachers are needed to provide class activities and to guide students through explanation and classroom discussion. This means that teachers serve as ethical mentors (Lickona, 1991: 71). According to Suparno (2000: 6) teacher should act as a facilitator, hence teacher as well as providing class activities; teacher also gives encouragement to students. This means that teachers should encourage students to express their own ideas and opinions about values they read in the text.
e. Twelve Units of Living Values
(Tillman, 2000) LVEP is a values education program. It offers a variety of experiential values activities and practical methodologies to teachers and facilitators to enable children and young adults to explore and develop twelve key universal values.
educators or parents who encourage creating values-based education for their students and children (Tillman, 2000: 4) In this study the writer used the twelve units of LVEP as the value material that was used in this design. The twelve units and the explanation of LVEP can be seen as follows:
No Units Value Statement Reflection Points
1 Peace “In its purest form, peace is inner silence filled with the power of truth.
Peace is the prominent characteristic of what we call ‘a civilized society and the character of a society can be seen through the collective consciousness of its members.”
• Peace is being quiet inside
• Peace is having good feelings inside
• Peace is when people get along and do not argue or hit
• Peace is having positive thoughts for myself and others
• Peace begins within each one of us.
2 Respect “To know one’s own worth and to honor the worth of others is the true way to earn respect
Respect is an acknowledgement of the inherent worth and innate rights of the individual and the collective. These must be recognized as the central focus to draw from people a commitment to a higher purpose in life”.
• The first respect is to respect myself
• Respect is liking who I am
• Respect is knowing I am Unique and valuable • Respect is listening to
others
• Those who give respect will receive respect
3 Love “Love is the principle which creates and sustains human relations with dignity and depth. Spiritual love takes one into silence, and that silence has the power to unite, guide and free people.
Love is the bedrock for the belief in equality of spirit and personhood.
• Love is caring and sharing
• Love is feeling safe • Love is kindness
• Love is wanting good for others
• Love is being a
Love is combined with faith that creates a strong foundation for initiative and action.
Love is the catalyst for change,
development, and achievement.”
4 Tolerance “Through understanding and open-mindedness, tolerant people attract someone different, and by genuinely accepting and accommodating that person, demonstrates tolerance in practical form.”
• Tolerance is accepting my self and others
• Tolerance is knowing we are all different
• Tolerance is being understanding and open minded
• The seed of tolerance is love: its water is compassion and care • The seeds of intolerance
are fear and ignorance 5 Happiness “Through the power of truth
there is wealth, and through the power of peace there is health. Together they give happiness. Happiness is earned by those whose actions; attitude and attributes are pure and selfless.”
• Happiness is knowing I am loved
• Happiness is giving everyone good wishes • Where there’s hope,
there will be a happiness • Happiness is peaceful
condition. 6 Responsibility “A responsible person fulfills
the assigned duty by staying true to the aim.
Duties are carried out with integrity and a sense of purpose.”
• Responsibility is being fair
• Responsibility is doing my share of the work • Responsibility means
doing our jobs
• Responsibility means accepting what must be done
• Responsibility is taking care of me and others. 7 Cooperation “One who cooperates receives
cooperation. The method to give cooperation is to use the energy of the mind to create vibrations of good wishes and pure feelings for others and for the task.
By remaining detached,
• Cooperation is helping one another
• Cooperation is working together toward the same goal
objective and influenced by innermost values and not external circumstances, subtle cooperation in the form of wisdom emerges.”
• Cooperation is everyone helping to get something done.
8 Humility “A person who embodies
humility will make the effort to listen to and accept others. The greater the acceptance of others, the more that person will be held in high esteem and the more that person will be listened to one word spoken in humility has the significance of a thousand words.”
• Humility is accepting everyone
• Humility is self-respect and self-esteem
• Humility is courage and confidence
• A humble person can stay happy inside while listening to others
• Humility is staying easy and light inside.
9 Honesty “Honesty means there are no contradictions or discrepancies in thoughts, words, or actions. To be honest to one’s real self and to the purpose of a task earns trust and inspires faith in others.
Honesty is never to misuse that which is given in trust.”
• Honesty is trust
• Honesty is being true to yourself and to others • Honesty is telling what
really happened
• Honesty is telling the truth
• When I am honest, I can learn and help others learn to be giving.
10 Simplicity “Simplicity calls on instinct, intuition, and insight to create essence thoughts and empathetic feelings.
Simplicity is the conscience which calls upon people to rethink their values.”
• Simplicity is natural and beautiful
• Simplicity is putting others first
• Simplicity is
appreciating the small things in life
• Simplicity makes me feel comfortable
• Simplicity means giving patience, friendship and spirit.
11 Freedom “A full freedom functions only when rights are balanced with responsibilities. And choice is balance with conscience.” The most potent power to put an end to internal and external wars is the human conscience.”
• Freedom is choice • Freedom is precious gift • Freedom is living with
dignity
• Inner freedom is experienced when I have positive thoughts for all others, including myself. 12 Unity “Unity is harmony within and
among individuals in the group.
Unity is sustained by concentration, energy and focusing thought, by accepting and appreciating the value of the rich array of participants and the unique contribution each can make, and by remaining loyal not only to one another but also to the task.”
• Unity is togetherness • Unity is collective
strength and harmony
• Unity is personal
commitment
• There is strength in unity
• Unity is broken by one note of disrespect
Table 2.1: Twelve Units of LVEP
5. Designing Materials Theory
In this study, the writer applies integrated theory using task-based approach to design a set of supplementary Englishinstructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students. Some points regarding designing materials using integrated theory based on task-based approach are discussed as follows:
a. Integrated Materials
productive skills. Integration in language arts refers to teaching and learning the four language processes: listening, speaking, reading and writing in an integrated manner.
According to Brown (2001: 2340), the integration of the four skills is the only plausible approach within a communicative and interactive framework. He gives arguments that teaching learning should be done in an integrated manner to make it communicative and interactive. Firstly, he explains that production and reception are quite inseparable. Secondly, interaction means sending and receiving messages. Thirdly, he argues that written and spoken languages are often interrelated. Fourthly, often one skill reinforces another and fifthly, Brown states most of our natural performance in the real world involves not only the integration of one or more skills but connections between language and the way we think, feel and act. Using integrated materials the students have the benefit of practising all the language skills in integrated, natural and communicative way.
In our everyday use of language, we continually integrate the language skills or switching from one skill to another. It is best to reflect this integration of skills can be the basis for whole lesson plans. Whole lesson plans can integrate skills around a single theme or topic. Group project also involve the use of all the skills. Integrated skills lesson and projects can be varying interesting, enjoyable, and satisfying for the learners.
stated by Drake (1999: 45), education fails if the outcomes are an individual; the students who are intelligent, skilled and knowledgeable but unable to live, work and make positive relationship with others. In this study the writer integrated the cognitive behaviors through short story and affective behaviors which focus on promoting the students’ values of life.
The benefits of integrated skills instruction are that they give a model for the students of the real-life integration of language skills, get them to perceive the relationship among several skills and provide the teacher with a great deal of flexibility in creating interesting and motivating lessons. In addition, integrated-skill courses give students great motivation that coverts to better retention of principles of effective speaking, listening, reading and writing and provides them with a chance to diversify their efforts in more meaningful task. Such integration can, of course, utilize a strong, principled approach to the separate, unique characteristics of each skill (Brown, 232-234).
Integrated material is a material that focuses on the mastery of the integrated communicative skills rather than a mere mastery of the rules in the target language (Richard and Rodgers, 1988: 64). The Integrated material is designed for communicative competence. There is an integrated relationship or unity in each part of its activities. The material consists of communicative language functions or expressions to discuss the themes and communicative activities. The materials will lead the students to learn the language skills and also to promote their values of life.
environment and selects the instructional strategies, resources, assessments and evaluation techniques to be employed.
According to Oxford (cited by Mohan, 1986), he stresses two types of integrated-skill instruction. They are content-based language instruction and task-based instruction. Content-task-based instruction emphasizes learning content through language, while task-based instruction stresses doing task that require communicative language use.
In this study the writer uses task-based learning activities in order to achieve the objectives. The future discussion on the use of task-based learning technique in teaching English using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students will be presented in the following discussion.
b. Task-based Learning
The idea of getting learners to acquire English in the process of doing other tasks was developed in India by N.S. Prabhu in the 1980s. his ‘Procedural Syllabus’ consist, not of language items, but of task requiring increasingly complex use of language. The principle tasks, usually done in groups, were designed to interest and challenge the learners sufficiently to get them to use English.
Task… is activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in task is evaluated in terms of achievements of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some resemblance to real-life language use. So task-based instruction takes a fairly strong view of communicative language teaching. (Skehan, 1996: 20).
opportunities to interact. Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and express their own meaning
According to Nunan (2004: 1) task-based language teaching strategies have strengthened in the principles and practices as follows:
- A need-based approach to content selection.
- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
- The introduction of authentic texts in the learning situation.
- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language but also on the learning process itself.
- An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important.
6. Instructional Design Model
Learning may happen without any designed instruction, but the effect of designed instructions on learning are often beneficial and easy to observe. A well-planed instruction is advantageous for the teachers, students, and also other components respectively. As said by Mukarto (1989: 56), the benefits of having well-planed instruction are:
1. The material to be learned is well organized. As a result, it is easier for the teacher to teach and for the student to learn.
2. The teacher will not omit important information.
3. The instruction is consistent from learner to learner and from class to class. 4. All the human components know what to do during the instructional processes
and all the non-human components are available on time they are needed.
In this study the writer adopts and adapts three instructional models as the framework in designing a set ofsupplementary English instructional materials using short stories to promote the students’ values of life for the sixth grade of elementary school students. The three instructional models are Kemp’s, Borich’s and Dick and Carey’s models. The explanations of the three models can be seen as follows: a. Kemp’s Model
1) Considering goals, listing topics, and stating the general purposes for teaching each topic.
2) Specifying the significant characteristics of the learners.
3) Formulating the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes.
4) Listing the subject content that supports each objective.
5) Developing an analysis to determine the student’s background and present level of knowledge.
6) Selecting learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content, so students will accomplish the objectives.
7) Coordinating support services such as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.
8) Evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and re-evaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement (Kemp, 1977: 87)
Figure 2.1. Kemp’s Instructional Model
Goals, Topics,&
General Purposes Evaluation
Learner Characteristics
Learning Objectives Revise
Support service
Teaching/ learning activities, Resources
Pre-Assesment
Subject Content
The process as shown in figure 2 is flexible. It allows an instructional designer to start with whichever element and then move back and forth to the others steps. However, there is interdependence among the eight elements, and decisions relating to one may affect others.
As quoted by Soekamto, Kemp (1922: 21) explains that developing instructional system is an unbreaking continuity or a cycle. Each step of the development has a direct relation with an activity, which is called revision.
Therefore, teachers and instructional designers can start developing their instructional system from any point and can go to any direction. This process can possibly happen because an instructional program is regarded as a system in which its component is interdependent.
b. Borich’s Model
The writer also found other information that was related to the writer’s design instructional activity. Borich’s model gives a big part in considering value as a part of the instructional design. According to Borich (1996: 111) the instructional model starts with the answer to the following questions:
1) Which aims and goals should they try to achieve?
2) To which learner needs should you direct your interaction?
3) What should you teach and in what ways can you structure the content to produce maximum learning (for instance, by establishing consequences making transition; highlight important points and interweaving themes)? 4) How can you orchestrate various teaching methods to meet the objectives
5) What should Instructional media and materials you use to deliver the content and assess whether it has been learned?
6) On what basis should you revise the instruction?
For each question, there are many alternatives. Selecting an Instructional goal, organizing content for maximum learning and retention, selecting instructional methods and material, and assessing the learners, all require planning skills that must reduce the alternatives to the most practical and effective ones. Borich includes the stages into the “planning process”. Borich applies four stages in designing an instructional material. They are (1996: 114):
1) Gaining knowledge of some inputs, 2) Generating alternatives,
3) Recognizing value assumptions, 4) Revising alternatives.
Briefly, the four stages of this instructional-design plan is shown by the following diagram:
Add new data Expand set of Revise match About inputs alternatives as as needed
As needed needed
Figure 2.2. Borich’s Instructional Model (Borich, 1996:114) Gain
Knowledge of input to the
planning process goal learning needs content i ti Generate alternatives from knowledge of inputs Select and prioritize goal-learning need, organization – method match, and recognize value implication Obtain the feedback from
the learner as to the consequences
Gaining Knowledge of some inputs
According to Borich (1996: 109), the first stage in the term of instructional development is gaining knowledge of some input. The four primary inputs to the planning process are stated as follows:
1. Aims and goals, reflected by national and state policies and legislation, school district curriculum guide, and adapted textbook and materials, 2. Learner characteristics and individual differences reflected by the learners’
attitude and achievement, personality traits (anxiety, learning style, and self-concept), peer influence, and home and family life.
3. Knowledge of academic discipline and grade level curriculum, reflected by content organization (such as general-to-detailed, simple-to-complex, abstract-to-concrete), ordering of priorities (such as connections and transitions among and between parts), major and minor themes (such as most important and least important), and content-specific facts, rules, concept, and principles
4. Knowledge and teaching methods, reflected by key and helping behaviors (such as lesson clarity, instructional variety, task orientation, and learners’ engagement in the learning process at moderate-to-high rates of success), pacing mode of presentation, classroom arrangement and selection and use the of text books, media and materials.
Generating Alternatives
(1)Choosing from among different instructional materials to select the learner characteristic, to which the instruction will be tolerated.
(2) Organizing the content, and
(3) Selecting teaching method and instructional materials.
Recognizing Value Assumptions
The goals, learning needs, organizations, and methods must be matched with one another (Borich 1996: 112). In this step, the goals must be matched with the learning need, and then both of them must be tied to a specific organizational pattern and instructional arrangement to make the best “goal-learning based on need-organization-method” match. Borich (1996: 112-113) stated that the objectives are organized into cognitive behaviors (development of intellectual abilities, and skills), affective behaviors (development of attitudes, beliefs, and values), and psychomotor behaviors (coordination of physical movements and bodily performance).
One of the most important results of prioritizing the goal-learning based on need-organization-method matches is that the value assumption will be recognized that such ordering implies. Matching and prioritizing are planning activities that encourage to actively considering consequences of certain decisions.
Revising Alternatives
c. Walt Dick’s and Lou Carey’s Model
Similar to Kemp, Dick and Carey (1978: 7) also explain that their model is flexible. They explain that a designer can change the sequences of the model if it is in different circumstances or with regard to the different experiences. Dick and Carey propose nine steps in developing a language program. T
