i ABSTRACT
Pertiwi, Dewanti Ratna, 2014. Teachers' Belief of How to Develop Students to Become Successful English Learners. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.
The role of English as a foreign language drives it to be an interesting case to study. The case is not only in its linguistic aspects but also in its pedagogical and psychological aspects. One of the interesting matters in TEFL is the teachers who are considered as the highest organizers holding authority in classroom management. As English teachers, they have met a number of phases and cases including being English learners, being teachers, joining teachers’ forums, and practicing teaching techniques. These aspects direct them to hold particular beliefs toward the best assumption influencing their teaching.
This research attempts to answer What is teachers’ belief of how to develop
students to become successful English learners? The beliefs are observed by considering its affecting aspects: schooling, professional coursework, contextual factors, and classroom practice.
To answer the research question, the study employed a phenomenology research study with two data sources: interviews and classroom observations. This study involved three junior high school English teachers from three different schools to represent various perspectives about developing successful English learners. The teachers were interviewed once and the classroom activities were observed twice. The interpretations from the interview were reported to the teachers to confirm, ensure, and convince that the interpretations are in line with the teachers meant.
The findings of the research reveal four points. First, in terms of the teachers’ schooling, the teachers believe that English is learnt as a means of communication. As a foreign language, it needs special treatments to learn since some problems may appear in learning it especially when English is regarded as a school subject in the final examination. Second, in terms of professional coursework, the teachers believe that their pedagogical value becomes the basic foundation in exploring and implementing any efforts to develop their professional development which affects on how they develop successful English learners. Third, in terms of contextual factor, the teachers believe that a teacher’ forum and teacher certification are the programs which the teachers think give a positive contribution for professional teacher development. Fourth, in terms of classroom practice, successful English learners are best developed using integrated technique, that is combining some parameters to develop at the same time and separated technique as the enrichment.
ii ABSTRAK
Pertiwi, Dewanti Ratna, 2013. Teachers' Belief of How to Develop Students to Become Successful English Learners. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Peran bahasa Inggris sebagai sebuah bahasa asing menjadikan hal tersebjut menarik untuk dikaji. Ini tidak hanya terletak pada aspek kebahasaan namun pada aspek pedagogi dan psikologi. Salah satunya adalah guru yang dianggap sebagai pemegang peran tertinggi dalam manajemen sekolah. Sebagai guru bahasa Inggris, mereka telah mengalami sejumlah tahapan dan hal di antaranya menjadi pembelajar bahasa Inggris, menjadi guru bahasa Inggris, mengikuti forum pengajar bahasa Inggris, dan mempartikkan teknik mengajar. Aspek-aspek tersebut membuat para guru memegang keyakinan terhadap beberapa asumsi yang dianggap merupakan terbaik dalam mengajar bahasa Inggris.
Penelitian ini menyelidiki Apa keyakinan guru dalam mengembangkan siswa menjadi pembelajar bahasa Inggris yang berhasil? Keyakinan ini ditinjau dengan mempertimbangkan aspek yang berpengaruh yaitu sekolah, pendidikan profesi, faktor kontekstual, dan kegiatan kelas.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan dari penelitian ini, penelitian fenomenologi dikembangkan menggunakan dua sumber data yaitu wawancara dan pengamatan kelas. Penelitian ini melibatkan tiga guru Inggris SMP dari tiga sekolah untuk menggambarkan berbagai perspektif tentang pengembangan pembelajar bahasa Inggris yang berhasil. Wawancara dilakukan satu kali dan pengamatan kelas dilakukan dua kali. Interpretasi dari hasil wawancara dilaporkan kembali kepada para guru untuk menkonfirmasi, meyakinkan, dan memastikan bahwa interpretasi tersebut sesuai dengan yang dimaksud para guru saat wawancara.
iii
menggunakan teknik terintegerasi yaitu menggabungkan beberapa parameter untuk dikembangkan secara bersamaan dan teknik terpisah sebagai pengayaannya.
i
TEACHERS' BELIEF OF HOW TO DEVELOP STUDENTS
TO BECOME SUCCESSFUL ENGLISH LEARNERS
A Thesis Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora (M. Hum) in
English Language Studies
by
Dewanti Ratna Pertiwi
116332025
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s idea, phrase,
v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI
KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Dewanti Ratna Pertiwi
Nomor Mahasiswa : 116332025
Demi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
TEACHERS' BELIEF OF HOW TO DEVELOP STUDENTS
TO BECOME SUCCESSFUL ENGLISH LEARNERS
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan. Dengan demikian saya memberikan hak kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alhamdulillahirobbil’alamin, praise be to Allah the Almighty and the most Merciful that because of His blessings I could finally finish my thesis to attain the degree of Magister Humaniora in English Language Studies.
I would like to express my highest gratitude and appreciation to my thesis advisor, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. who has been very helpful, kind, and patient in giving me advice, ideas, guidance, assistance, and their valuable time during the process of writing this thesis. I also wish to express my sincere thanks to my lecturers, F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D., Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons), Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, and Dr. F.X. Siswadi, M.A. for their countless knowledge during my study.
My deep gratitude also goes to my parents, parents-in-law, sister, and brothers-in-law for their loving, support, and encouragement during the process of writing the thesis. Then, I need to thank my friends in PBI C UNY academic year 2006 for all the tight friendship we have, all friends, and classmates in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University for the priceless moment and people whose name I could not mention.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
ADVISOR’S APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
DEFENSE APPROVAL ... iii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PUBLIKASI ... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ... x
LIST OF CODES AND ABBREVIATIONS ... xi
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xii
ABSTRACT ... xiii
ABSTRAK ... xiv
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 Problem Identification ... 4
1.3 Problem Limitation ... 7
1.4 Problem Formulation ... 7
1.5 Research Goal ... 8
1.6 Benefit of the Study ... 8
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Theoretical Review ... 9
2.1.1 Teachers’ Belief in English Teaching ... 9
2.1.1.1 The nature of beliefs ... 9
2.1.1.2 The source of teachers’ beliefs ... 12
2.1.1.3 The role of teachers’ beliefs ... 14
2.1.2 Factors Influencing Teachers’ Belief about Successful English Learners ... 16
2.1.2.1 Teacher education ... 16
2.1.2.2 The current English curriculum in Indonesia ... 19
2.1.2.2.1 Curriculum of 2006 ... 20
2.1.2.2.2 Curriculum of 2013 ... 23
2.1.3 Successful English learners ... 25
2.1.3.1 Learner variables ... 27
viii
2.1.4 Junior High School Students ... 42
2.1.4.1 The characteristics of junior high school students ... 42
2.1.4.2 The teaching of English to junior high school students ... 44
2.2 Related Studies ... 49
2.3 Theoretical Framework ... 50
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design ... 53
3.2 Nature of Data ... 54
3.3 Research Setting and Participants ... 54
3.4 Data Collection Method ... 55
3.4.1 In-Depth Interview ... 55
3.4.1.1 Construction of in-depth interview questions guideline ... 56
3.4.1.2 Management of in-depth interview data ... 57
3.4.2 Classroom Observation ... 61
3.5 Data Analysis ... 64
3.5.1 Account of Teachers’ Individual Beliefs ... 65
3.5.2 Account of Teachers’ Shared Beliefs ... 66
3.6 Trustworthiness ... 68
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Schooling ... 69
4.2 Professional Coursework ... 73
4.3 Contextual Factor ... 92
4.4 Classroom Practice ... 93
4.4.1 Communicative competence ... 93
4.4.2 Grammar ... 97
4.4.3 Involvement ... 98
4.4.4 Learning awareness ... 100
4.4.5 Learning strategy ... 102
4.4.6 Character education ... 103
4.4.7 Motivation ... 105
4.4.8 Age ... 107
4.4.9 Personality ... 107
4.4.10 Gender ... 109
4.4.11 Meta cognition ... 110
ix
4.4.13 Culture ... 116
4.4.14 Aptitude ... 118
4.4.15 Language mastery ... 120
4.4.15.1 Vocabulary ... 120
4.4.15.2 Pronunciation ... 121
4.4.15.3 Error correction ... 123
4.4.16 Language skills ... 124
4.4.16.1 Listening ... 124
4.4.16.2 Speaking ... 126
4.4.16.3 Reading ... 128
4.4.16.4 Writing ... 130
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION 5.1 Conclusion ... 133
5.2 Implication ... 135
5.2.1 For English Teachers... 135
5.2.2 For Policy Maker ... 137
5.3 Suggestions ... 137
REFERENCES ... 139
x
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Figure 2.1
Relationship among beliefs, principles, and practices ... 15
Figure 2.2
Teacher education program ... 18 Table 2.1
Core and basic competence ... 24 Figure 2.3
Meta cognition model ... 30 Figure 2.4
Classroom reading performance ... 36 Figure 2.5
Theoretical framework ... 52 Table 3.1
Sample of questions in the in-depth interview ... 57 Table 3.2
Sample of interview transcription ... 60 Table 3.3
Sample of observation note ... 62 Figure 3.1
Data analysis procedure ... 65 Table 3.4
Sample of Individual Account (Mr. Inu) ... 66 Table 3.5
xi
LIST OF CODES AND ABBREVIATIONS
GTM Grammar Translation Method
CALL Computer-Assisted Language Learning TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language
APEID Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development
KTSP Kurikulum Satuan Pendidikan (School based curriculum)
BSNP Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan (Board of national education standard)
Perpem Peraturan pemerintah (Government’s regulation)
IT Information technology
UTK Ujian Tingkat Kompetensi (Competence level test)
UMTK Ujian Mutu Tingkat Kompetensi (Competence level quality test)
SL Second Language
EFL English as a Foreign Language
ICARE Introduction, connection, application, reflection, extension Depdiknas Depatemen pendidikan nasional (Board of national education)
UK United Kingdom
NP Noun Phrase
VP Verb Phrase
CLT Communicative Language Teaching CBI Content Based Instruction
JHS Junior High School
IRF Initiating, Responding, Follow up
TEFLIN Teaching of English as a Foreign Language JETA Jogja English Teachers Association
xii
LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Appendix 1: Interview Guidelines ... 145
2. Appendix 2: Interview Transcription ... 149
3. Appendix 3: Observation Field Notes ... 219
4. Appendix 4: Shared Beliefs and the Interpretation ... 237
xiii ABSTRACT
Pertiwi, Dewanti Ratna, 2014. Teachers' Belief of How to Develop Students to Become Successful English Learners. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.
The role of English as a foreign language drives it to be an interesting case to study. The case is not only in its linguistic aspects but also in its pedagogical and psychological aspects. One of the interesting matters in TEFL is the teachers who are considered as the highest organizers holding authority in classroom management. As English teachers, they have met a number of phases and cases including being English learners, being teachers, joining teachers’ forums, and practicing teaching techniques. These aspects direct them to hold particular beliefs toward the best assumption influencing their teaching.
This research attempts to answer What is teachers’ belief of how to develop
students to become successful English learners? The beliefs are observed by considering its affecting aspects: schooling, professional coursework, contextual factors, and classroom practice.
To answer the research question, the study employed a phenomenology research study with two data sources: interviews and classroom observations. This study involved three junior high school English teachers from three different schools to represent various perspectives about developing successful English learners. The teachers were interviewed once and the classroom activities were observed twice. The interpretations from the interview were reported to the teachers to confirm, ensure, and convince that the interpretations are in line with the teachers meant.
The findings of the research reveal four points. First, in terms of the teachers’ schooling, the teachers believe that English is learnt as a means of communication. As a foreign language, it needs special treatments to learn since some problems may appear in learning it especially when English is regarded as a school subject in the final examination. Second, in terms of professional coursework, the teachers believe that their pedagogical value becomes the basic foundation in exploring and implementing any efforts to develop their professional development which affects on how they develop successful English learners. Third, in terms of contextual factor, the teachers believe that a teacher’ forum and teacher certification are the programs which the teachers think give a positive contribution for professional teacher development. Fourth, in terms of classroom practice, successful English learners are best developed using integrated technique, that is combining some parameters to develop at the same time and separated technique as the enrichment.
xiv ABSTRAK
Pertiwi, Dewanti Ratna, 2013. Teachers' Belief of How to Develop Students to Become Successful English Learners. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Peran bahasa Inggris sebagai sebuah bahasa asing menjadikan hal tersebjut menarik untuk dikaji. Ini tidak hanya terletak pada aspek kebahasaan namun pada aspek pedagogi dan psikologi. Salah satunya adalah guru yang dianggap sebagai pemegang peran tertinggi dalam manajemen sekolah. Sebagai guru bahasa Inggris, mereka telah mengalami sejumlah tahapan dan hal di antaranya menjadi pembelajar bahasa Inggris, menjadi guru bahasa Inggris, mengikuti forum pengajar bahasa Inggris, dan mempartikkan teknik mengajar. Aspek-aspek tersebut membuat para guru memegang keyakinan terhadap beberapa asumsi yang dianggap merupakan terbaik dalam mengajar bahasa Inggris.
Penelitian ini menyelidiki Apa keyakinan guru dalam mengembangkan siswa menjadi pembelajar bahasa Inggris yang berhasil? Keyakinan ini ditinjau dengan mempertimbangkan aspek yang berpengaruh yaitu sekolah, pendidikan profesi, faktor kontekstual, dan kegiatan kelas.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan dari penelitian ini, penelitian fenomenologi dikembangkan menggunakan dua sumber data yaitu wawancara dan pengamatan kelas. Penelitian ini melibatkan tiga guru Inggris SMP dari tiga sekolah untuk menggambarkan berbagai perspektif tentang pengembangan pembelajar bahasa Inggris yang berhasil. Wawancara dilakukan satu kali dan pengamatan kelas dilakukan dua kali. Interpretasi dari hasil wawancara dilaporkan kembali kepada para guru untuk menkonfirmasi, meyakinkan, dan memastikan bahwa interpretasi tersebut sesuai dengan yang dimaksud para guru saat wawancara.
xv
menggunakan teknik terintegerasi yaitu menggabungkan beberapa parameter untuk dikembangkan secara bersamaan dan teknik terpisah sebagai pengayaannya.
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
The first part of this research is written to describe the background of the problems containing the issues related to teachers’ belief of how to develop students to become successful English learners. This chapter covers the foundation of the thesis research. It includes background, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, research goal, and research benefit.
1.1Background
A person learns the first language earlier than the second language and foreign language. A first language (sometimes called as mother tongue) is different in each region. It is learnt without having a particular course because it might come from the closest environment. Sometimes learning the first language is not called as a process of learning but a process of acquisition. In addition, a second language is varied in each country. It is learnt when a person gets involved in particular occasions requiring a formal language to communicate such as in training and school. Meanwhile, foreign language is learnt by following a particular language education program such as an English course and English subject at school.
in expanding circle countries to have various beliefs. It might be due to their earlier learning experiences, teacher training courses taken at school, and their cultural backgrounds.
Investigating the phenomenon about teachers’ belief in order to develop the students to become successful English learners is necessary to create better English learners. In this study, investigating the beliefs in the context of junior high school level is expected to give description and interpretation on what values the teachers hold and do to develop successful English learners. Junior high school level is chosen since it is the first level in which English is regarded as a compulsory subject and the learners have unique characteristics in terms of transitional phase that is they are to leave the childhood and start the adulthood.
is able to use particular strategies flexibly either for long term goals or task to hand. The teachers can help learners to discover ways of learning that work best for them. In addition, a competence to set objectives for the learners and the selected techniques to achieve the objectives support the development of successful learners. Some factors affect the formation of teachers’ belief. Ivone (2005) mentions that English teachers’ belief in Indonesia is influenced by teachers’ background, particularly childhood. As we know, in Indonesian curriculum, started from Curriculum of 1947 (Rencana Pembelajaran 1947) until Curriculum of 1975, the curriculum described the application of Classical Humanism model. The purpose of learning was limited to transferring knowledge. English was taught by memorizing rule and vocabulary and translating the language instead of using it in communication. The following curriculum, Curriculum of 1984, changed the paradigm by adopting Reconstructionism model in which learning aims at producing human to have good behaviour. In this model, students were treated as the subject of learning process who observed, classified, until reported the result of the learning activity. In 1994, the curriculum changed into Curriculum of 1994. It was seen as the combination of the previous curriculums for activating students’ self-actualization mentally, physically, and socially as stated in the Progressivism model. The students were supposed to use their English in communication. From 2002 to now, Indonesia starts using New Pragmatism model emphasizing on students’ competency, orienting learning outcomes, applying various approaches and methods, using various learning sources (not limited in teachers’ capacity), and assessing learning process and
1.2Problem Identification
Teachers’ belief determines the success of a teaching and learning process. Internal factors (from the teachers itself, e.g. experience, psychology) and external factors (from other board, demand from particular institutions, e.g. government’s campaign on character building) affect the teachers’ belief formation. In relation to English teaching and learning, the teachers question on how English teachers should teach English as a foreign language and how they develop the students to become successful English learners.
Along the time, a number of experts attempt to give various definition of belief. In one of the more extensive reviews of teachers’ belief, Pajares (1992) points out that belief is rarely operationalized in studies and thus it is difficult to separate from reveal and investigate. He posits that belief is seen based on evaluation and judgment. Bernat and Gvozdenko (2005) highlight belief is a psychological case by which human use their understandings, premises, or propositions about the world so that they feel something regarded as the true one. More specifically, Luft and Roehrig (2007) describe belief has interrupted memory, high personality, and information concluded from personal experiences, cultural sources, and containing evaluative, emotive, and affective components. Based on the definitions, the operational definition of belief will be the result of observing, understanding, proofing a principle and use it in a particular occasion as regarded to be right and applicable one.
Richards and Lockhart (1996: 32-42) propose types of beliefs consist of “beliefs about English, learning, teaching, the program and the curriculum, and language teaching as a profession”.
Firstly, talking beliefs about English is crucial since each individual may have different perspective about English. For some English instructors in a course, English is seen as a medium to earn money. Differently, people studying abroad (in English speaking countries) English is likely used as a means of communication. In addition, some people may say English is language of colonialism.
Secondly, people might have different points of view about learning. One of the possible emerging views is about English teachers’ concept. Some teachers may say that learning is accomplishing mark record to get as perfect score as possible. Or, learning is likely seen as grabbing knowledge and materials from the teachers. These predicted beliefs affect the way teachers select the best technique, exposure, type of expected students, learning style, and teaching strategies.
Thirdly, beliefs about learning are closely related with beliefs about teaching. Teachers use their beliefs about learning in formulating beliefs about teaching. Beliefs about teaching are reflected in the way teachers define their role in the classroom, teaching methods, teaching resources, effective teaching, and qualities of a good teacher.
toward supporting cases in their teaching. Such as, recently, government develops character education by integrating it into the instruction. This program influences the teachers in preparing the instructional materials. The teachers are required to use instructional materials which integrate the character education into the materials.
Fifthly, teachers might have different perception on language teaching as a profession, i.e. the way teachers see their occupation. Teachers’ teaching activity in a different institution even in the same one likely has different reflection about their occupation due to the concept of professionalism. The beliefs about this language teaching are reflected on the way teachers characterize English teaching as a profession and think about the required training for the professionals, professional development, rewarding aspect, and evaluation.
Successful English learners are assigned when they achieve the standards in either pedagogic or non-pedagogic aspects. In pedagogical aspect, Ellis (2008: 708) points out some characters of a successful learner, i.e. having ability to use language form and communication function, actively get involved in a task, be aware of the significance of learning process, and use the strategy flexibly. Similarly, Depdiknas
language learners as even though they have spent much time in the classroom, still they need to learn by practice on their own.
To identify teachers’ belief on how to develop successful English learners, this is essential to know what the teachers believe related to the indicator about successful English learners in Indonesia and globally. Moreover, is important to relate what the teachers say and what the teachers do. Therefore, the research applies a qualitative method. It assists education practitioners to take the benefits of the teachers’ belief model which can improve the quality of teaching and learning process. In this research, interpretive phenomenology is applied to give description and interpretation about how to develop successful English learners.
1.3Problem Limitation
Nowadays, English is taught in Indonesia in almost all levels of education, starting from very young learners to university students. Considering the limitation in terms of time, area, and methodology, this research attempts to focus on junior high school scope as this level is seen as ideal phase where English starts becomes a compulsory subject. Moreover, junior high school students are in the transition phase between childhood and adult in which they need special treatment to teach. Therefore, it can be assumed that the teaching and learning have unique phenomena to investigate.
1.4Problem Formulation
1.5Research Goal
The goals in doing the research are to reveal, describe, and interpret junior high school teachers’ belief. It may be derived from what the teachers say and do about their beliefs as a result of their constructed experience, observations, training, and other ideas of how to develop their students to become successful English learners. The different beliefs are included into teachers’ individual belief whereas the similar beliefs are included into teachers’ shared belief.
1.6Benefit of the Study
This research is expected to contribute to the improvement in teaching and learning of English in Indonesia. Theoretically, this research aims to reveal, describe, and interpret teachers’ belief in developing students to become successful English learners. The investigation result of teachers’ belief here is expected to give valuable information as a means of teachers’ foundation in their professional teaching, reflection, evaluation, and improvement.
9 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
In this part, I present three parts; theoretical review, review of related studies, and theoretical framework. In the theoretical review, I elaborate the relevant theories of teachers‟ belief in English teaching, the teaching of English to junior high school, and successful English learners. Meanwhile, in the review of related study part, I summarize the findings of some research then extracts each then looks for the comparison among others. Furthermore, I present the theoretical framework in the last part.
2.1Theoretical Review
2.1.1 Teachers’ Belief in English Teaching
Investigating teachers‟ belief can contribute information related to English instruction. Liao (2007) proposes that the study of teachers‟ belief is necessarily used as the predictors to investigate the situations and decisions they make.
2.1.1.1The nature of beliefs
The term belief is admitted as an uneasily defined term because it has many branches to talk about and unlimited scopes. Senior (2006: 12) defines belief as “personal convictions (passions) about language teaching and learning that teachers
are able and willing to express”. It is influenced by teachers‟ background that makes
one learning program lasts, they have to prepare the following lesson without having reflection. Meanwhile, some other teachers likely have beliefs that reflection is necessary used in improving the quality of language teaching and learning.
Notwithstanding the uneasily defined term, discussing a belief can use an assumption. Liljedahl (2010) describes beliefs using an analogy that beliefs are as if a scene which figures out dissimilar viewpoints. In other words, a belief is actually resulted from different ways a person stands point an object. Similarly, Richards and Lockhart (1996) argue that beliefs are regarded as the extraction of what the teachers understand and assume to be the right one.
One of the difficulties in examining teachers‟ belief is that they are not directly observable. Therefore they can only be inferred from teachers‟ behaviours in the classroom. Aspects of classroom practice which reflect teachers‟ belief are teaching approaches, types of materials, and types of activities (Richards: 1998).
Teaching approaches may vary among teachers such as teacher-centred or learner-centred, monolingual or bilingual, focus on fluency or focus on accuracy, etc. The chosen approaches are resulted from what teachers understand and believe to be correct one, for example, the application of teacher-centred approach which reflects teachers‟ belief that effective language learning is more successful using teacher-centred than other approaches.
appropriate one since it is more up to date and modern. These two conditions show how materials reflect teachers‟ belief.
Meanwhile, teachers may use different types of activities like presentation, discussion, pair work, group work, games, role play, etc. In teaching and learning case, there is a tendency that an old-fashioned teacher tends to use traditional activity (one-way activity) such as teacher-explains and students-listen. The teacher in this occasion posses the concept that one-way activity is regarded to be the most effective in language learning. On the other hand, a developing teacher prefers to use two way activities and more communicative one, such as discussion and pair work. Both contrastive conditions reflect how teachers‟ belief is put into their action in choosing the appropriate activities.
A number of factors affect the formation of different beliefs among English teachers. Richards and Schmidt (2002: 541) argue that teachers‟ belief are affected by “experience, observations, training and other sources and serve as a source of reference when teachers encounter new ideas, sometimes impeding the acceptance of new ideas or practices”. As an idiom, experience is the best teacher, experience is
seen as the major factor in beliefs either as teachers or learners since teachers prove the strength and weakness of having particular beliefs. Beliefs are constant as they structure a system. As we know, a system is very likely to be fossilized.
the connection of a new idea with the teacher‟s own situation affect teachers to shift their beliefs with the proper one. In addition, a change is derived from a change in the teaching context such as the themes of the teaching materials. In carrying out their responsibilities, teachers are required to do number of government‟s demand to
be a professional teacher. In doing so, there are some criteria made by the government to fulfil, such as minimum 24 lesson hours teaching each week. This case also influences teachers to change their beliefs. Furthermore, a change is influenced by a realization of something based on his or her experiences as a learner and a conflict between the teachers‟ new beliefs and their practices.
In conclusion, teachers‟ belief refers to what teachers assume as the correct one which is influenced by the experience from internal and external factors in doing their teaching responsibility. There is no absolute correct and incorrect in formulating beliefs. The properly admitted belief is the one which is born out to be effective in language learning and has sufficient theoretical foundation.
2.1.1.2The source of teachers’ beliefs
Teachers‟ belief may be dynamic. It is influenced dominantly by the practical
things instead of theoretical things. A teacher tends to change their beliefs under the
influence of their fellow teachers actual teaching practice or their own teaching
practice (Kagan: 1992). Nevertheless, a number of sources of teachers‟ belief exist
in teaching work field. The idea of investigating belief is supported by the theory
proposed by Borg (2012) who mentions that in order to understand what teachers do
in meeting an effective language learning, it is not enough to know their behavior.
Teachers‟ belief reveal in each English teacher due to several factors.
Kindsvatter, Willen, and Ishler in Richards and Lockhart (1996) suggest the sources
of teachers‟ belief. Before being teachers, all teachers have gone through a phase in which they were learners. The manifestations about how they were taught contribute
to forming their beliefs about teaching. Moreover, teaching experience can be the
primary source of teachers‟ belief. By witnessing how a method works for a particular group of students might lead to the beliefs about such a method. In
addition, within a school, an institution or a community, certain teaching styles or
methods may be preferred. Hence, a method or an approach rooted in a community
or a school system for quite some time might be taken for granted as the most
effective. Another source is some teachers are likely to have a preference for a
particular teaching method or activity simply because it matches their personality.
New finding and approach based principles encourage teachers form their
beliefs. Teachers drive their beliefs due to new finding on principles in language
education. The existing approach and method also direct teachers‟ belief. For example teachers who feel comfortable learning using Grammar Translation Method
(GTM) are likely to apply this method as well in their teaching activity.
Convincingly, experience is determined to be the broad factor formulating
beliefs. Richards and Rodgers (2001) add that teachers‟ approaches are formulated at
the same way they expand their experience and knowledge. This process portrays an
established approach which reflects their beliefs, values, principles, and experiences.
In other words, teachers‟ experiences either as learner of a training or program or as
Marland (1995) opposes by arguing that the way teachers were taught does not
merely influence their beliefs. It is more due to their personal experience especially
as teachers.
Overwhelming factors formulate teachers‟ belief. A belief which is also called
as a cognition is derived from “schooling, professional coursework, contextual
factors, and classroom practice” (Borg: 1997 as cited in Borg: 2003). Schooling factor in this case includes a training program which was experienced by a teacher
during her/ his role as a learner and a teacher at the past. A belief may be formed and
changed as there is a contextual factor, professional coursework, and classroom
practice. The teachers need to adapt what they have believed and what they need to
do in a particular context. Teachers may believe that a GTM is old fashioned but in
preparing their students to have a TOEFL, a GTM may be a must to teach.
2.1.1.3The role of teachers’ beliefs
Teachers‟ belief is acknowledged to play roles on their classroom practices and
professional development. Kuzborska (2011: 102) mentions that “teachers‟ belief
influences their goals, procedures, materials, classroom interaction patterns, their
roles, their students, and the schools they work in.” More detail, Richards (1998) highlights that a crucial source of teachers‟ classroom practices is their belief
structure. Its structure includes the information, attitudes, values, expectations,
theories, and assumptions about teaching and learning that they construct from time
to time then extract it then put it into their classroom.
Another function of teachers‟ belief is being the fundamental role in the process
the process of conceptualizing teachers‟ professional work. The belief is used as an
indicator in promoting themselves either their development inside the place where
they work in carrying out their teaching responsibility (school, university) or outside
(seminar, workshop, training).
In line with Richards, et al., in making a decision, teachers use their beliefs as
the main indicator. It is based on the nature of extraction process that belief is the
value people get and hold as the most appropriate one. This assumption is cited by
Bandura, 1986; Dewey, 1933; Rokeach, 1968 in Nash and King (2011). In addition,
Atkin (1996) states that a belief formulates the creation of principles and practices of
a teacher or the environment where the teacher works in. She describes the
relationship among beliefs, principles, and practices as follows.
In the figure, beliefs are put in the same circle with core values since beliefs and
values both become the indicator source of decision making.
2.1.2 Factors Influencing Teachers’ Belief about Successful English Learners
A number of factors affect the creation, development, and change of teachers‟ belief. The factors start staying in teachers‟ lives since they are in an education
program until when they are already being a teacher. According to Borg‟s conceptual framework in Borg (1997), teachers‟ professional coursework which they take from
their educational program becomes one of the factors influencing their belief.
Therefore, the first factor to discuss is teacher education. Furthermore, to be able to
teach better and develop successful English learners, teachers need to know the
concepts and indicators of successful English learners stated in the curriculum and
the variables of successful English learners. Thus, the second factor to discuss is
English curriculum in Indonesia which focuses on the two current English
curriculums and the third factor is about successful English learners which focus on
the variables.
2.1.2.1Teacher education
It is well known that the quality and extent of learner achievement are
determined primarily by teacher knowledge and competence. Therefore, it is
required a program to enable high quality of English teaching and learning by
advancing knowledge about teaching, spreading good practice, and enhancing
equity for the students which is called as teacher education. As Borg (2003) says
about teacher cognition, schooling which includes teacher education and experience
to the development of teacher proficiency and competence that would enable and
empower the teachers to meet the requirements of the profession and face the
challenges. It includes all formal and non-formal activities and experiences which
assist teachers holding their responsibilities as a member of educational profession
more effectively.
The development of teacher knowledge has been cultivated through
professional development activities. Spelman and Rohlwing (2013) argue to
counter professional development, the new professional learning models are
designed as lifelong, collaborative learning processes that support a job
embedded, learner-centered approach. The new model emphasizes the need for
educators to take active roles in their professional learning and development. This
movement away from the traditional professional development model emphasizes
the need for schools to become learning communities that support the growth of
both teachers and students. According to Darling-Hammond & Branaford in
Darling-Hammond (2006), to prepare a qualified teacher, a teacher education
program should teach about 1) knowledge of teaching, 2) knowledge of learners and
their development in social context, and 3) knowledge of subject matter and
Figure 2.2 Teacher education program by Darling-Hammond (2006)
From the table, it can be seen that in preparing teachers for a changing world to reach
a vision of professional practice requires two phases, that is teaching and also
learning. In terms of teaching, the teachers should teach as a profession to prove that
they have competence and commitment in the instructional program. While teaching,
the teachers should also learn pedagogical value in the context of democracy that is
positioning the quality of human rights in which teachers learn to teach without
authoritarian.
This classification is supported by Crandall (2000) who mentions that
recently teacher education emphasizes on three things, i.e. 1) practical experiences
classroom-centered management, and 3) teachers‟ belief (cognition) in language teacher education.
In line with Crandall, Borg in Simpson (2011) proposes themes
characterizing teacher education including teacher cognition, knowledge base for
teacher education, knowledge about language, reflective practice, practicum, and
teacher research. Furthermore, APEID (Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational
Innovation for Development) in 1990 mentions the impacts of teacher education.
Teachers at all levels of provision (primary, secondary, vocational and non-formal)
require regular opportunities for further study, for both personal and professional
growth through teacher education program. This is intended to maintain their
commitment and motivation, update knowledge and skills toward new curriculum
and teaching materials, and have access to a reorientation program if they wish to
move into a different field of teaching.
2.1.2.2The current English curriculum in Indonesia
One of the ways to always keep the quality of education better and more up to
date is concerning the quality of curriculum. Curriculum is something dynamic
which becomes the root of education program. As a part of curriculum in general, the
focus of language curriculum development is selecting what knowledge, skills, and
values students learn in educational program, what experiences should be provided to
convey intended learning outcomes, and how teaching and learning can be planned,
measured, and evaluated (Richards, 2001). Richards and Rodgers (2001) add that the
elements in a language curriculum development form interacting system network; the
The dynamics of curriculum likely influences teachers in developing successful
English learners as curriculum determines the indicators should be reached in an
English program. In relation to the need of English education improvement,
Indonesia has gone through some curriculum changes following what happened
universally. Broadly, there are five curriculum changes in Indonesia; Curriculum of
1968 and before, Curriculum of 1975, Curriculum of 1984, Curriculum of 1994, and
competency based curriculum. The last curriculum, competency based curriculum is
classified into four curriculums; version 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2013. Considering
the up to date-ness of curriculum development, this research describes, compare, and
interpret the essence of the last two recent curriculum, curriculum of 2006 and 2013.
2.1.2.2.1 Curriculum of 2006
Curriculum of 2006 is well known as school based curriculum (KTSP= Kurikulum Satuan Pendidikan). Derived from the name, the focus of Curriculum of 2006 is giving autonomy for the educational institution (school) to develop the
curriculum as much as possible based on government regulations, graduate standard
of competence and standard of content (Depdiknas: 2008). The standard of content includes the minimum material scope and the minimum competence standard to
achieve minimum graduate competence at particular education level nationally.
Whereas graduate standard of competence is used to do a measuring and determine
learners‟ graduate. It is nationally applied however the achievement may depend on
the school condition.
In relation to English subject at junior high school level, the goal of English
spoken and written form to achieve functional literacy level. Functional literacy for
junior high school students is able to communicate in a spoken and written form in a
daily life context. Secondly, English learning is intended to develop awareness about
the nature and significance of English to improve global competition power. The
third, the goal of English instruction is to develop learners‟ understanding about the relation between language and culture (Depdiknas: 2006).
In order to achieve the goals, scopes of English instruction need to be covered.
School based curriculum includes three scopes for junior high school level. The first
scope is competence in terms of discourse that is identifying and producing spoken
and written text. The second is competence in identifying and producing functional
text, monologue, and essay which consists of procedure, descriptive, recount,
narrative, and report. The third scope is supporting competences including 1)
linguistic competence in using grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and punctuation,
2) socio cultural competence in using expression, 3) strategic competence in solving
possible problems in communication, and 4) discourse competence in using tools to
produce a discourse.
Besides identifying the scopes of English instruction, a standard of content is
spelt out into standard of competence and basic competence. The standard of
competence is determined based on the four language skills; listening, speaking,
reading, and writing. Each standard of competence in a language skill is described
more in some basic competences.
Determining the success of a curriculum cannot be seen only from the final
proposed according to Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional RI No. 41 Year 2007. Standard of process is defined as criteria about learning implementation at an
educational program to achieve graduate standard of competence. It includes learning
process planning, learning process activity, learning achievement assessment, and
learning process control. In the learning process planning, some tools need to
prepared, such as syllabus and lesson plan. Furthermore, the elements in the learning
process activity include ideal number of learners in a class, classroom management,
textbook, and teaching and learning procedure. The result of instruction can be
reviewed by a teacher using test and non-test assessment, spoken and written
assessment, observation, portfolio, homework, or project. In a process of conducting
school based curriculum, it also requires learning process control. It is divided into
control, supervision, evaluation, report, and follow-up action.
The next standard characterizing school based curriculum is the standard of
assessment. BSNP (2007) defines standard of assessment as a benchmark used to
collect and manage information to determine learners‟ achievement. The tools to assess learners‟ achievement in school based curriculum are in the form of daily
assignment, mid-term examination, semester examination, up grading examination,
school examination, and national examination. The principles of assessing learners‟ achievement are genuine, objective, fair, integrated, open, comprehensive,
continuous, systematic, based on criteria, and accountable. The techniques of
assessment can use test, observation, individual or group assignment, homework, and
project. Boards who are responsible for assessment are teacher, educational
During the implementation of Curriculum 2006, there is a breakthrough to
develop students‟ not only students‟ competence but also their character. It is
inspired by law No. 20 Year 2003 Chapter 3 that national education is intended to
develop competence, character, and national civilization. Thus, government started to
develop character education integrated in the school subjects in 2010. Character
education is not only law and government demand but also religion demand.
Kemendiknas (2011) describes that character education is carried out to 1) develop
multicultural human life, intelligent, 2) develop intelligent national civilization and
be able to contribute to human life development, and 3) develop peaceful, creative,
and independent citizen and able to socialize with other nations harmonically. The
more attempts to realize character education is executed in the Curriculum of 2013.
2.1.2.2.2 Curriculum of 2013
According to Kemendikbud (2012) Curriculum of 2013 is well known as
outcomes-based curriculum (Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi). Different from Curriculum of 2006, Curriculum of 2013 gives more portions toward the process and
character education. Besides, Curriculum of 2013 is structured by core competence
and basic competence. Core competence is the operation of graduate standard of
competence, i.e. required quality of a learner after finishing an educational program
in the form of behavior, knowledge, and skill (affective, cognitive, and
psychomotor). It is structured as organizing element of basic competence which is
divided into vertical (among grade in a program) and horizontal (among subject in a
Based on Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan No. 54 2013, the graduate standards of competences for junior high school students are categorized
into three aspects. Firstly, in terms of behavior dimension, a student should have
faithful, noble, intelligent, confident, and responsible behavior in interacting
effectively in social and natural environment in society scope and the existence.
Secondly, in knowledge dimension, a student should have factual, conceptual, and
procedural knowledge in science, technology, art, and culture with humanism,
nationalism, and civilization concept related to real phenomena. Thirdly, in terms of
skill dimension, a student should have effective and creative thinking and behaving
ability in abstract and concrete field based on what is learnt as school and other
typical resources.
Values of character education are integrated in the core and basic competence
of Curriculum of 2013. It can be seen from one of the competences of 9th grade as
follows (Kemendikbud: 2013).
Table 2.1 Core and basic competence
Core Competence Basic Competence
2. Respecting and comprehending honesty, discipline, responsibility, care, politeness, confidence in interacting effectively with social and natural environment in society scope and the existence.
1.1 Respecting politeness and care in communicating among individual with teacher and class/ schoolmates.
1.2 Respecting honesty, discipline, confidence, and responsibility in communicating transactional expression with teacher and class/ schoolmates. 1.3 Respecting responsibility, care, cooperation, and peace in communication functional expression.
The learning scope for 7th and 8th grade it includes 1) texts (label, list of goods, sign,
descriptive, and song), 2) text structure of interpersonal, transactional, and functional
literacy, 3) listening, speaking, reading, and writing skill of interpersonal,
transactional, and functional literacy, 4) elements of literacy, 5) very short and
simple phrase, and 6) modality with meaningful expression. Meanwhile, for 9th
grade, the scope includes 1) texts (factual report, scientific, procedure, narrative, and
advertisement in interpersonal, transactional, and functional literacy, 2) text structure
of interpersonal, transactional, and functional literacy, 3) listening, speaking, reading,
and writing skill of interpersonal, transactional, and functional literacy, 4) elements
of literacy, 5) very short and simple phrase, and 6) modality with meaningful
expression.
To achieve the goal, Curriculum of 2013 is completed with the standard of
process and standard of assessment. The standard of process in Curriculum of 2013
includes learning process planning, learning process implementation, learning
achievement assessment, and learning achievement control. The standard of
assessment in Curriculum of 2013 is the criteria about mechanism, procedure, and
instrument of students‟ achievement. The assessment can be obtained through
authentic assessment, self assessment, portfolio based assessment, assignment,
mid-term semester examination, final semester examination, competence level test
(UTK=Ujian Tingkat Kompetensi), competence level quality test (UMTK= Ujian Mutu Tingkat Kompetensi), national examination, and school examination.
2.1.3 Successful English learners
Naiman et al. in Ellis (2008: 708) uses the term „good‟ to show the quality of successful. He mentions that “good language learners use a mixture of analytical strategies for attending to form and experiential strategies for realizing language as a means of communication.” Learners have a number of strategies and maintain the strategy/ ies to achieve long term goals and certain task to accomplish right away. Hence, Ellis proposes five characteristics of good language learners. The first and second is that language learners maintain the focus of language form and communication function. The third is that they will get involved in a task actively. The fourth, learners are aware of the significance of learning process. The last, learners are able to apply strategies flexibly to accomplish particular tasks.
In the same way, Brown (2001) uses the term „good‟ to show the quality of
Considering that the focus of the research is for junior high school teachers in Indonesian context and the nature of learning English is for a global communication the concept of successful English learners in this study are constructed of factors exist in Indonesia as well as in global context. Successful English learners concept is elaborated on learner variable, and learning variable.
2.1.3.1 Learner variables
Basically, learner variables are indicators which have already attached to a learner. Grifftiths (2008) cites that a successful English learner should have high motivation, proper school age, preferred learning style, proper personality, gender regard, metacognition, developed autonomy, appropriate personal learning beliefs, cultural experience, and language aptitude.
The second learner variable is learners‟ age. The age of students is a major factor in making decision about how and what to teach. It affects English learners in terms of cognitive development. Harmer (2001) categorizes learner age into young children, adolescents, and adult learners. Similarly, Piaget in (Ormrod: 2011) proposes four stages of cognitive development. Sensory motor stays from birth to 2 years old. In this phase, a child‟s system is limited to motor reflexes at birth. In preoperational stage (2 to 7 years old), a child acquires representational skills and especially language. In the following stage, concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years old), a child is able to understand concrete problems and take multiple perspectives into account. The last, in formal operational stage (12 to adult) a child is capable of logical, theoretical, and abstract cognitive operations.
judgment, planning and control are more dominating while in making perception, spontaneity and adaptive styles are more dominating.
It is not enough to have good intelligence to be successful English learners without proper personality. Personality has typical characteristics among person and distinguishes one person to other from the behavior, attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, actions, and feelings. Personality factors influencing people in learning language are self-esteem, inhibition, anxiety, and risk taking which can contribute to motivation and the choice of learning strategies (Richards and Schmidt: 2002).
The following learner variable is the gender. There are some differences between female and male student in the context of language instruction. According to Brown (2001), research highlights that female and male typically use language differently. Women have frequently used more concessive language than men and tend to talk less in a mixed sex conversation. Henes (1994) adds that research points out more female students follow patterns used in an instruction than male students. Hingley in Graham (1997) supports that girls are generally encouraged to be more conscientious than boys. Considering gender composition within group is necessary to ensure that all group members gain equal experience as unbalance gender composition affect the success of group work.
who can use meta cognition effectively are aware to hold their responsibility in planning, monitoring, evaluating, and self correction to their learning. Dawson (2008) describes model of meta cognition chain as follows.
Figure 2.3 Meta cognition model by Dawson (2008)
To be a successful English learner, she/ he should be autonomous. Autonomy is frequently close to awareness and responsible. When a learner is aware of her/ his responsibility, autonomy starts attaching to her/his learning. Scharle and Szabo (2000) define autonomy as “freedom and ability to manage one‟s own affairs which
entails the right to make decisions as well.” Farell and Jacobs (2010) mention that autonomy is the key role that learners hold to be success in their education. Autonomy in this case does not mean learners work alone but they are able collaborate with their peers to move away from dependence on the teacher to independence. Learners need to be trained as autonomous learners since even though it has been enough to have much learning through classroom context, there is always plenty more they will need to learn by practice on their own.
Belief in a language instruction is not only a value owned by teachers but also students. Appropriate learner belief encourages successful English learner development. Understanding learner beliefs in this context is crucial, since it has been noted that successful learners develop aware beliefs about language learning processes, their own abilities, and the use of effective learning strategies, which have a facilitative effect on learning. According to Kern, Weinstein, and Peacock in Bernat and Lloyd (2007) argue that learner beliefs tend to be stable, strongly seized, and resistant to change. Thus, it is necessary to guide learners in order to have appropriate learning belief.
culture of the language may be taught as an integral part of the curriculum. Cole in Brooker and Woodhead (2010) argue that children acquire language at the same time they acquire culture. For example, in asking for help from an older man it is more polite to say „Could you help me?‟ instead of „Help me!‟ In this case, culture teaches the speakers to use more polite expression in talking to older people. Haynes and Zacarian (2010) argue that learning a language involves learning the norms of the culture in which the language is used. For example, a text describing students in senior high school in UK who elects class officers may teach how democratic process in UK is.
The last element of learner variables is language aptitude. Unlike motivation, interest, and intelligence, aptitude is natural. Richards and Schmidt (2002: 285) state that
“Language aptitude appears as the natural ability to learn a language. A person with high language aptitude can learn more quickly and easily than a person with low language aptitude. It is structured as a combination of various abilities, such as oral mimicry ability (the ability to imitate sounds not heard before), phonemic coding ability (the ability to identify sound patterns in a new language), grammatical sensitivity (the ability to recognize the different grammatical functions of words in sentences, and the ability to infer language rules.”
2.1.3.2 Learning variables
Developing those learning variables in the post modern era is often conducted in integrated way, mostly integrating the for language skills with associated skills such as knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, and syntax (Oxford: 2001). She proposes two forms of integrated skill instruction, i.e. content-based instruction and task-based instruction. However, the practice of integrated skills instruction can be the combination of some variables, such as 1) integrating vocabulary, grammar, into reading and writing, 2) integrating language function and pronunciation into listening and speaking, and 3) integrating other four variables-teaching/ learning method, strategy instruction, error correction, task completion- into any variable.
Developing the first variable, vocabulary, includes word meaning, how words extend their use, how words combine, and the grammar of words (Harmer: 2001) . In a word meaning case, the point of word meaning is not necessarily the same as what it suggests as sometimes words have different connotations so it often depends on the context it occurs. For example, „table‟ can mean 1) a kind of furniture with legs which we can write on and 2) small boxes drawing to list information. A word can also have be stretched and twisted to fit different context and different uses through extending word use such as in „The ticket price went up and I went up the stairs. The first „went up‟ means increase while the second „went up‟ means move to the upper
„book‟ has plural form as it belongs to countable noun on the other hand the word
„furniture‟ does not.
The second learning variable that is used to describe how words can change their forms and be combined into sentence is grammar. The most familiar tool in grammar is tree diagram where language learner can know structure of words in a sentence. A simple tree diagram basically consists of NP (noun phrase) and VP (verb phrase). An NP contains a D (determiner) and an N (noun). A VP consists of a V (verb) and an NP (noun phrase). There are of course many other unit rules on grammar such as tense and morphemes.
As the main purpose of using a language is to communication, learning language function is seen as a necessary point in learning variable. Harmer (2001) proposes four elements determining what kind of language function speaker can use including setting, participants, gender, channel, and topic. Language function in English subject in Indonesian curriculum is divided into interpersonal and transactional use. Woods (2010) argues that interpersonal expression is used to establish, maintain, and signal relationships between people whereas transactional expression focuses on the message for turn taking, topics, and discourse management.
identity and language ego, and motivation for good pronunciation. Gilakjani (2011) adds other factors; accent, attitude, instruction, and personality. In order to learn pronunciation, all of those aspects should be taught communicatively through conversation, drilling, expert guidance, and critical listening.
Language skills in learning variables become the media which are possibly used to integrate the development of other variables. Language skills are distinguished based on the cycle (spoken and written cycle) or the process sequence (receptive and productive skill). Based on the process sequence, listening is the first skill employed in communication. Harmer (2001) differentiates listening skill into extensive and intensive listening. Extensive listening takes place outside classroom space. Its purpose is to give more opportunities in developing listening skills including vocabulary and grammar development. In order to encourage extensive listening, teachers can have learners perform a number of tasks, such as recording their responses toward they hear, fill in report form, and summarize the contents of a tape. Another listening type is intensive listening which is sometimes called as live listening. To encourage intensive listening, teachers may have some activities, like reading aloud, storytelling, interviews, and conversation.
