Dietary assessment of
five male sports teams
in Greece
Maria Hassapidou
Introduction
Interest in sport has increased greatly over the last decades. The science of nutrition in relation to sports performance has progressed and we now have a better understanding of the relationship between diet and physical performance.
A number of investigators (Burke and Read, 1987; Di Chenet al., 1989;
Brotherhood, 1984) have reported that many athletes do not follow the best dietary pattern for optimal sports performance.
Studies have revealed athletes in negative energy balance (Short and Short, 1983), with low carbohydrate intakes (Steele, 1970) or athletes with low vitamin and mineral intakes (Niemanet al., 1989; Newhouse and
Clement, 1988).
Eating problems, as it has been reported, cluster in sports, where low weight is thought to improve performance (e.g. distance running), where rating may be influenced by appearance (figure skating, gymnastics) or where athletes must compete in specific weight categories (Sykoraet al., 1993).
Existing studies generally find that athletes have problems more frequently than the general population and that sports
characterized by specific weight requirements or appearance expectations (wrestling, gymnastics) have more problems than sports in which weight is less important (Burke and Deakin, 1994).
In Greece, although there has been great interest in sport since ancient times, information about dietary practices and the nutritional status of athletes is scarce.
The present study aimed to examine anthropometric characteristics of 47 eÂlite male athletes, of five different sports teams: rowers, volleyball players, cyclists,
weightlifters and distance runners, and to assess their dietary intakes during the
competitive period. No similar study has been carried out in Greece before.
Methodology
All athletes were recruited, on a voluntary basis, from five athletics teams in Athens. At the start of the study, more athletes
participated but some dropped off later and the final sample consisted of 47 eÂlite
professional athletes (16 rowers, 14 volleyball The author
Maria Hassapidouis a Professor at TEI, Thessaloniki, Greece.
Keywords
Diet, Sports, Greece
Abstract
Healthy and suitable nutrition plays an important role in the athletic performance providing the long-term needs of training and the short-term needs of competition. In Greece, despite the great interest in sports since ancient times, there is no adequate information regarding the dietary practices and the nutritional status of the athletes today. The anthropometric characteristics and dietary intakes of 47 eÂlite male athletes of five different sport teams: rowers, volleyball players, cyclists, weightlifters and distance runners were assessed in this study. Dietary data were collected during the competitive period. The study showed that, although the athletes reported an adequate mean energy and micronutrient intake, the intake of macronutrients was not in balance. Volleyball players and distance runners had lower than
recommended carbohydrate intakes, not meeting their fuel requirements. Weightlifters had the highest overconsumption of fat at the expense of carbohydrates. This calls for an urgent need of nutrition education for the athletes in Greece, in order to improve their diet and achieve an optimum athletic performance.
Electronic access
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emerald-library.com/ft
31
Nutrition & Food Science
Volume 31 . Number 1 . 2001 . pp. 31±34
players, six cyclists, five weightlifters and six distance runners), members of national teams in Greece.
Data were collected over the competitive season when athletes were both practising and competing in games or meets.
Anthropometric data
Height was measured to the nearest centimetre and weight was recorded to the nearest 0.1kg with a portable metric scale that was calibrated daily. The percentage of body fat was determined using skinfold
measurements. Four skinfolds were taken: (1) triceps;
(2) abdomen; (3) suprailiac; and (4) thigh.
Body density was calculated using the formula proposed by Jacksonet al.(1980). Body density was converted to percentage of body fat using the Siri equation (McArdle et al., 1994).
Dietary intake
All subjects kept weighed dietary records for seven consecutive days during the competitive season. Subjects had to weigh, according to instructions given to them, all foods and drinks consumed during the day. Scales were provided to the athletes as well as cups and plates with known weights. Dietary intakes were analyzed using the Microdiet computer program. Foods were coded by two dietitians using McCance and Widdowson's food tables. Greek food recipes were added in the basic database according to the Food
Composition Tables and Composition of Greek Cooked Food and Dishes(Trichopoulou, 1992).
Results
Table I shows the anthropometric characteristics of the athletes. Distance runners and cyclists had lower weights compared with athletes of the other three sports. The highest mean weight, as expected, was found for weightlifters. When heights were compared it was found that volleyball
players were taller, followed by rowers. Cyclists and distance runners had lower percentages of body fat, as expected by their type of sport. The highest mean percent body fat was found in weightlifters.
Table II shows the results for energy intakes, reported by the athletes, expressed as total caloric intake per day and as Kcal per kg of body weight. The highest mean energy intake per day and per kg body weight, as reported by the athletes, was found for cyclists, followed by rowers. Distance runners had the lowest mean daily energy intake. When energy intake was expressed as Kcal per kg body weight, the lowest value was found for weightlifters.
Macronutrient intakes as reported by the athletes are presented in Table III. Protein intakes ranged from 1.6g/kg for weightlifters to 2.7g/kg for cyclists. The percentage energy provided by proteins ranged from 15 to 20 per cent. Carbohydrate intake ranged from 37 to 56 per cent of total energy intake (3-9g/kg body weight). The lowest carbohydrate intake (37 per cent of energy) was found for weightlifters. A total of 50 per cent of energy was provided by carbohydrates for distance runners and cyclists whereas higher
carbohydrate intakes were found for rowers (55 per cent of energy) and volleyball players (56 per cent of energy).
Fat intakes ranged from 26 per cent of energy for rowers and 28 per cent for volleyball players to 44 per cent for weightlifters.
Micronutrient intakes as reported by the athletes are presented in Table IV. Vitamin as
Table IAnthropometric characteristics of the athletes
Sport Number
Age (years)
Weight (kg)
Height (cm)
Percentage of fat
Rowers 16 23+3 87+8 188+7 11+3
Volleyball players 14 24+3 87+7 194+8 9+3
Cyclists 6 25+6 68+5 176+6 7+1
Weightlifters 5 27+5 99+5 177+7 18+3
Distance runners 6 21+4 61+5 175+5 7+2
Table IIEnergy intakes of the athletes
Sport Number Kcal/day Kcal/kg
Rowers 16 4,211+227 48+3
Volleyball players 14 3,500+338 40+4
Cyclists 6 5,023+780 74+11
Weightlifters 5 3,157+420 32+4
Distance runners 6 2,926+453 48+7
32
Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece Maria Hassapidou
well as mineral intakes vary between athletic teams, but all mean values are well above the RDA values showing an adequate intake of vitamins and minerals by the athletes.
Discussion
In the present study the dietary intakes of eÂlite male athletes, of five different sports, have been determined. The study was carried out during the competitive season. Anthropometric measurements were taken for all athletes. As expected, cyclists and distance runners had lower mean weights and percentage of body fat, compared to the other athletes. In these sports low body weight and body fat are considered necessary for optimal performance. Body weight and composition are functions of the athletes' genetics, diet and training and reflect the structural and functional characteristics that are specifically favourable for the sport involved.
Rowers and volleyball players had higher mean percentages of body fat compared to cyclists and runners but still significantly lower than weightlifters. In these sports low body weight is not so important and percentages of body fat tend to be higher. Weightlifters had the highest weight and percentage of body fat. In this sport, athletes generally try to compete in weight divisions below their normal body weight and therefore body weight fluctuation can be rapid, frequent and large.
The mean reported energy intakes of athletes varied from 2,926+453Kcal per day for distance runners to 5,023+780Kcal per day for cyclists. Many investigators have reported that most male athletes meet their energy requirements and consume higher energy intakes compared with female athletes. (Hassapidou et al., 1999; Clark, 1991). Van Erp-Baartet al. (1989) assessed the nutrient composition of 419 athletes of different sports. The highest energy intakes in this study were found in endurance athletes (cyclists, swimmers and rowers). These results are in accordance with our study.
Most scientists agree that although athletes consume diets high in calories they are failing to eat the ideal diet when macronutrient consumption is considered.
The average protein intakes of athletes of all sports were found in this study to exceed the recommended protein intakes. Athletes involved in sports not requiring a strength-training programme may not have protein needs higher than the community RDA for protein. As exercise commitments increase in terms of intensity and duration then
significant adjustments must be made to protein requirements especially for strength training programme. Brotherhood (1984) suggests a protein intake of 1.3g to 1.6g protein/kg body weight for strength training athletes.
A review of the most recent studies (Lemon, 1991; Tarnopolsky et al., 1988) suggests that the protein needs of strength athletes are about 1.2g to 1.7g/kg /day. The mean protein intakes of athletes of all
Table IIIMacronutrient intakes of the athletes
Protein Fat Carbohydrates
Sport Daily g Per kg Energy (%) Daily g Per kg Energy (%) Daily g Per kg Energy (%)
Rowers 188+19 2.2+0.2 19+3 124+22 1.4+0.2 26+4 587+ 15 6.7+0.2 55+5
Volleyball players 168+16 1.9+0.2 19+2 111+15 1.3+0.2 28+5 460+ 26 5.3+0.3 56+4
Cyclists 185+12 2.7+0.2 15+3 189+20 2.8+0.3 34+5 633+ 98 9.3+1.4 50+7
Weightlifters 156+28 1.6+0.3 20+2 153+93 1.5+0.9 44+7 289+128 2.9+1.3 37+9
Distance runners 116+14 1.9+0.2 16+1 116+24 1.9+0.4 34+3 374+ 63 6.1+1.0 50+3
Table IVMicronutrient intakes of the athletes
Sport
Vitamin A
g RE
Thiamin mg
Riboflavin mg
Niacin mg
Vitamin C mg
Vitamin E mg
Vitamin B6 mg
Vitamin B12
g
Ca mg/d
Zn mg/d
Fe mg/d
Rowers 5,639+1,432 2.8+0.2 3.9+0.5 48+6 321+29 12+1 2.7+ 0.3 5.9+2 1,682+384 17+4 32+2
Volleyball players 4,196+1,200 2.7+0.7 2.9+0.9 38+6 271+10 12+3 2.2+0.3 7.4+2 1,553+119 19+3 27+3
Cyclists 3,693+ 860 4 +0.6 3.8+1.4 49+7 171+57 23+5 2.6+0.1 6+3 1,729+222 30+5 38+5
Weightlifters 5,942+1,653 2.5+0.5 2.7+0.8 33+5 168+81 15+4 2 +0.9 8.5+3 1,591+118 23+7 22+3
Distance runners 4,462+1,512 2.5+0.2 2.8+0.7 29+6 164+48 19+9 1.7+0.2 3.9+3 1,832+283 25+8 28+2
33
Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece Maria Hassapidou
sports, in this study, were above these recommendations.
Contribution of carbohydrate intake to total energy intake varied from 37 per cent for weightlifters to 56 per cent for volleyball players.
If carbohydrates are assessed according to g/kg/day guidelines, then intakes of
7-10g/kg/day meet the literature guidelines for carbohydrate intakes of athletes undertaking prolonged daily training sessions. On this basis only rowers and cyclists appear to meet their fuel requirements. Volleyball players and distance runners had lower than
recommended carbohydrate intakes. The lowest mean carbohydrate intake (3g/kg) was found for weightlifters.
Fat intake above the recommended goals of 30 per cent was found in this study for cyclists, distance runners and weightlifters. The highest fat intake was found for weightlifters (44 per cent).
Higher fat and lower carbohydrate intakes than recommended have also been reported for athletes by other scientists (Di Chenet al., 1989). The higher macronutrient imbalance was found in the study for weightlifters. Van Erp Baartet al.(1989) reported that
carbohydrate intake of weightlifters, in their study, was 38 per cent of total energy intake, a value very similar to the one found in our study. Di Chenet al.(1989) also reported that although weightlifters had higher energy intakes than most strength athletes, they had an overconsumption of protein and fat at the expense of carbohydrate.
The mean micronutrient intakes of athletes, of all sports, were above the recommendation, showing that athletes met their requirements for vitamins and minerals, despite failing to eat the ideal training diet.
In conclusion the male athletes that participated in the study had adequate energy intakes and met their micronutrient
requirements. Macronutrient intakes were not in balance, especially for weightlifters, who had an overconsumption of fat at the expense of carbohydrates.
This study showed that there is a need for providing nutritional information to the athletes in Greece, in order to improve their diet and in this way their athletic
performance.
References
Brotherhood, J.R. (1984), ``Nutrition and sports performance'',Sports Med., Vol. 1, pp. 350-89. Burke, L. and Deakin, V. (1994),Clinical Sports Nutrition,
McGraw-Hill, Sidney.
Burke, L.M. and Read, R.S.D. (1987), ``Diet patterns of eÂlite Australian male triathletes'',Phys. Sports Med., Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 140-55.
Clark, N. (1991), ``Nutritional concerns of female athletes: case study'',Int. J. Sport Nutr., Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 257-64.
Di Chen, J., Wang, J.F. and Li, K.J. (1989), ``Nutritional problems and measures in eÂlite and amateur athletes'',Am. J. Clin. Nutr., Vol. 49, pp. 1084-9. Hassapidou, M., Fortin, R., Manstrantoni, A., English, C.
and Caldwell, M. (1999), ``Body composition, energy balance and eating disturbances. Assessment of eÂlite female athletes: a cross-cultural study between USA and Greece'',Nutrition and Food Science, Incorporating Home Economics and Technology, Vol. 2, pp. 66-71.
Jackson, A., Pollock, M. and Ward, A. (1980),
``Generalized equation for predicting body density in women'',Med. Sci. Sports Exer., Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 175-82.
Lemon, P.W.R. (1991), ``Effect of exercise on protein requirements'',J. Sports Sci., Vol. 9, pp. 53-70. McArdle, W., Katch, F. and Katch, V. (1994), ``The
composition of human body'', in Harris J., Stead L. and Lukenhs, R. (Eds),Essentials of Exercise Physiology, Lea and Febiger, Mallvern, PA. Newhouse, I.J. and Clement, D.B. (1988), ``Iron status
in athletes. An update'',Sports Med., Vol. 5, pp. 337-52.
Nieman, D.C., Butler, J.R., Pollett, L.M., Dietrich, S.J. and Lutz, R.D. (1989), ``Nutrient intake of marathon runners'',J. Am. Diet Assoc., Vol. 89, pp. 1273-8. Short, S.H. and Short, W.R. (1983), ``Four year study of
university athletes dietary intake'',J. Am. Diet. Assoc., Vol. 82, pp. 632-45.
Steele, J.E. (1970), ``A nutritional study of Australian Olympic athletes'',Med. J. Aust., Vol. 2, pp. 119-23. Sykora, C., Grilo, C.M., Wilfley, D.E. and Brownell, K.D.
(1993), ``Eating, weight and dieting disturbances in male and female lightweight and heavyweight rowers'',Inter. J. of Eating Disorders, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 203-11.
Tarnopolsky, M.A., MacDougall, J.D. and Atkinson, S.A. (1988), ``Influence of protein intake and training status on nitrogen balance and lean body mass'', J. Appl. Physiol., Vol. 64, pp. 187-93.
Trichopoulou, A. (1992),Food Composition Tables and Composition of Greek Cooked Food and Dishes, School of Public Health, Athens.
Van Erp-Baart, A.M.J., Saris, W.H.M., Birkhorst, R.A., Voos, J.A. and Elvers, J.W.H. (1989), ``Nationwide surveys on nutritional habits in eÂlite athletes: parts I and II'',Int. J. Sports Med., Vol. 10 No. 5, pp. 3-16.
34
Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece Maria Hassapidou
