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ANAGEMENTVolume 10, Number 2 (January 2023):4143-4153, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.102.4143 ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id
Open Access 4143 Research Article
The feasibility of converting ex-coal mining void into aquaculture in North Kalimantan
Yoppie Christian1*, Andy Afandi1, Budi Prabowo1, Novit Rikardi1, Desmiwati2
1 Center for Coastal and Marine Resources Studies (CCMRS) Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Raya Pajajaran No. 1 Bogor, Indonesia
2 Research Center for Society and Culture, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jl. Gatot Subroto No.10, Jakarta, Indonesia
*corresponding author: lakulintang@gmail.com
Abstract Article history:
Received 2 September 2022 Accepted 24 October 2022 Published 1 January 2023
Ex-coal mining void has changed landscape shape, physical-chemical, and soil biological properties. As a form of post-mining management, the company must restore damaged land and increase its benefits for the surrounding community, one of which is as a freshwater aquaculture area.
This study was conducted in a 50.26 ha void in the concession area of the coal mining company PT. Mitrabara Adiperdana (MAP) in Malinau Regency, North Kalimantan. The method used is by examining the physical quality of the environment in the laboratory using the quality standards in Indonesian Government Regulation (PP) No. 82 of 2001 and No. 22 of 2021. A study was also conducted on the assessment of community acceptance. The study found that freshwater aquaculture for pangasius (Pangasius sp.), snakehead (Channa striata), and tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) is appropriate to apply on location with several notes: reducing the concentration of suspended solids; reducing the content of phosphate and ammonia, and reducing the concentration of lead (Pb). Regarding these issues, two methods can be used: technology of turbine and nanobubble and natural-based solution through wetland ecosystem and void basin rehabilitation. At the same time, education and promotion of the surrounding community can be applied by involving communities during the piloting and demonstration plot process.
Keywords:
coal mining ecosystem
freshwater aquaculture North Kalimantan voids
To cite this article: Christian, Y., Afandi, A., Prabowo, B., Rikardi, N. and Desmiwati. 2023. The feasibility of ex-coal mining void into aquaculture in North Kalimantan. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 10(2):4143-4153, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.102.4143.
Introduction
Coal mining is one of the industries that raises pros and cons in Indonesia regarding environmental problems and the impact on humans in the vicinity. JATAM (2017) reports that the existence of 17.5 million hectares of coal mines in Indonesia has left the problem of open holes without reclamation, damage to water sources, leaving lands that cannot be used in the long term, and declining agricultural and fishery products due to the use of leftover water from mining pits. JATAM also reported that from 17 sample locations, it was found that the content of aluminum,
iron, manganese, and the pH of the water significantly damaged agricultural and fishery production. Acid mine drainage is also suspected to be a problem from coal mines in South Kalimantan due to the high levels of pH, temperature, color, BOD (biological oxygen demand), COD (chemical oxygen demand), TSS (total suspended solid), Fe, and Mn above the provisions of the Minister of Environment Regulation No. 113 of 2003 on Liquid Waste Quality Standard (Kiswanto et al., 2018; Kiswanto et al., 2022). On the other hand, mining contributes 7.2% to the GDP (gross domestic product) and plays a vital role in the livelihoods of many people (Owusu et al., 2019; Dyah and Dewi,
Open Access 4144 2020; Estefania et al., 2021). Therefore, a different
approach is needed to ensure the sustainability of this ex-coal mining area to function again ecologically. In addition to normative approaches, technology and science approaches can also be presented (Pratiwi et al., 2021).
From several experiences, the application of good management and the application of appropriate technology to voids can provide opportunities for the use of voids (Wirth et al., 2018; Woodbury et al., 2020) while at the same time restoring the ecological function of voids, but this must be applied case by case. In Canada, converting voids into trout aquaculture and recreational areas opens up economic and environmental opportunities (Otchere et al., 2004).
Using ex-mining land in a transdisciplinary manner has proven to successfully restore the benefits of the ex-mining void in Australia (McCullough et al., 2020).
Excellent and successful practices have also been carried out in Indonesia when an ex-cement mine pit in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency was converted into a freshwater cultivation area (Ramadhan et al., 2018).
Good post-mining planning and management practices are the keys to the success of environmental restoration efforts in Indonesia in a sustainable manner (Labo et al., 2019). The reclamation practice at PT Samantaka Batubara, Indragiri Hilir, has been proven to complied post-mining technical aspects that support the economy and the environment (Juniah, 2017). Other positive practices are also found in ex-tin mining areas in Bangka (Firdaus et al., 2021), ex-coal mining in Kutai Kartanegara (Ansahar et al., 2021), void coal mining in East Kalimantan (Pagoray and Ghitarina, 2020), ex-coal mine PT KPC (Maidie et al., 2010), limestone mining at Baturaja (Rahmi et al., 2019) and various other types of uses for ecological, economic and cultural interests (Herdiansyah et al., 2018).
Until 2020, Indonesia's three largest coal- producing provinces are South Sumatra, West Kalimantan, and South Kalimantan. Although not the largest, it is estimated that there are still 4.91 million tons of coal potential in North Kalimantan (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia, 2020).
One of the owners of coal exploitation concessions in North Kalimantan is PT MAP. This company is an Indonesian company engaged in coal mining since the 90s. PT MAP will soon complete its mining production in the next few years, so the company is preparing a post-mining program specifically related to land restoration. The company's vision related to the post-mining program is to make the post-mining area the best place for pilot fish farming and ecosystem restoration that complies with regulations as a form of optimizing post-mining land based on sustainable renewable energy. The company's mission to realize this vision focuses on empowering post-mining land for productive activities that enable communities around the mine to reduce dependence on raw materials/basic materials from outside the region and create new jobs for the community. The utilization of ex-coal mining voids is closely related to the technical
feasibility of water quality and the level of community acceptance of this company's initiation. So as a first step in implementing the development of aquaculture activities, a detailed study is needed relating to the technical feasibility, potential, and level of community acceptance of the aquaculture business. The study results in the paper may be used as additional information for PT MAP concession managers and coal concession owners in other locations regarding the feasibility of converting ex-coal mining into aquaculture.
Materials and Methods
The material used in this study was focused on the water quality condition and surrounding buffer area around the coal mine voids by PT. Mitrabara Adiperdana (MAP), which is located in Malinau Regency, North Kalimantan. Three void ponds were used as aquaculture areas: Void 1 (V1) covering an area of 50.26 ha with supporting voids Void 2 (V2) and Void 3 (V3) so that in total, the intervention area has an area of 250 ha (Figure 1). This study narrowed to the void that only had five years more for the post- sedimentation stage (returning post-mining void soil depth to a suitable depth for freshwater aquaculture activities by utilizing sedimentation deposition from water carried away from the main river (Younger and Mayes 2015; Noor et al., 2020) before the void was closed. This study primarily focused on Void 1 with a wide buffer zone for escalation on the land biodiversity for decreasing runoff and sedimentation and Void 1, also near primer water resources (main river). Water quality data collection was taken through sampling (primary data). Water sampling locations are determined based on the principles of spatial representation, bathymetry, and ecosystem diversity.
Water samples were taken at the surface (0.5-1 m deep) and bottom (0.5-1 m near the bottom surface) of the water body to determine the variability of water quality data among the site (Zhao et al., 2012). Water samples were taken from the void's inlet, middle, and outlet areas to find the water quality variable that affected the most in each sampling site.
Observations of the parameters of salinity, temperature, brightness, pH, and dissolved oxygen, were measured directly in the field (in situ) using a CTD meter, Secchi disk, pH meter, and DO meter, respectively (Wang et al., 2013). Other physicochemical parameters were measured and analyzed in the laboratory. The selection of water quality parameters is adjusted to the interests of the study, namely to determine environmental conditions at the location, such as pollution, especially heavy metals, which could affect aquaculture and high runoff activity that escalated water turbidity. While water samples were taken using a Vandorn Water Sampler made of Teflon material with a capacity of 5 liters and equipped with a ballast. The water sample was then transferred into a polyethylene bottle or a glass bottle depending on the parameters observed.
Open Access 4145 Figure 1. Void 1 (V1) at MAP Ltd. concession area, North Kalimantan.
All sample bottles were pre-cleaned and conditioned with sample water before use. Bottles filled with sample water are stored in an ice box on the way to the laboratory (Wang et al., 2013). For specific parameters, a preservation reagent was added.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton samples were taken using a plankton net with a 40-micron mesh size (Frias et al., 2014). Plankton sampling was carried out at the exact location as water quality sampling by vertical hauling method from a certain depth with several repetitions to be combined, with the filtered water volume reaching 100 liters. The plankton samples were then put in a sample collection bottle, given a preservative in the form of Lugol, and then taken to the laboratory for analysis. Analysis of plankton samples in general and meroplankton, in particular, was carried out to determine the abundance, diversity index (diversity), uniformity index, and dominance (Dursun et al., 2015). Water and plankton samples taken from each observation site were analyzed in the laboratory and compared with water quality standards as regulated in Government Regulation (PP) No. 82 of 2001 on Water Quality Management and Water Pollution Control, PP No. 22 of 2021 on Environmental Protection and Management, and Ministerial Decree of Environment No. 113 of 2003 on Liquid Waste Quality Standard. The method used to analyze the level of community acceptance is a descriptive analysis of the in-depth interviews with the community of seven villages around the mining area affected by the activities of the PT MAP company (Ring I Area). The tool for information gathering was a structured interview (Sutton, 2004; Berg, 2009). The interview was intended for four main questions: a)
What is the community's perception toward the MAP Company? b) What is the community's perception of the plan to convert the void into a freshwater aquaculture location?; c) What is the community's experience in aquaculture?; and d) What kind of organization exists to run aquaculture in the community? Meanwhile, the study locations are divided into three districts: South Malinau District in five villages: Long Loreh Village, Sengayan Village, Langap Village, Laban Nyarit Village, and Nunuk Tanah Kibang Village; Malinau Kota District in Malinau Kota Village, and South Malinau Hulu District in Tanjung Nanga Village.
Results and Discussion Water quality assessment result
Water quality test results in the V1 sample locations are presented in Table 1. Visually, the waters at location V1 are murky brown. This condition is also confirmed by the high True Color Unit value and low brightness. The color and brightness parameters are not regulated or have no quality standard values based on PP No. 82/2001 but are regulated in PP No. 22/2021 for lake water quality standards. The color value at all sampling locations is 50 at the surface outlet location to 162 TCU (True Color Unit) at the bottom inlet, while the highest required threshold is 50 TCU. The relatively lower color value at the surface outlet indicates a decrease in the concentration of suspended solids in the water body in V1, which is supported by a relatively slow water flow to provide sufficient time for the natural deposition process.
Open Access 4146 Table 1. Water quality test results in the V1 sample locations.
No Parameter Unit Sampling Location Reference Value Quality Standard
Surface
Inlet Bottom
Inlet Bottom
Middle Surface
Outlet Bottom
Outlet SNI
7550:2009* Scientific
Lit. PP 82/2001
Class II PP 22 /2021 (Lake water) I Physics
1 Temperature oC 31.9 29.1 28.9 31.2 28.9 25-32 ±3 ±3
2 Color TCU 127 162 156 50 156 - 50
3 Odor - zero zero zero zero zero - -
4 Brightness cm 20 20 20 20 20 30-40 - 400
5 Depth m 0 6.0 50 0 50 -
II Chemicals
1 pH 7 6 6 6 6 6.5-8.5 6-9 6-9
2 DO mg L-1 5.6 4.1 0.8 4.6 0.8 >3 >4 >4
3 Alkalinity mg L-1 90.00 88.00 140.00 80.00 140.00 -
4 Total Hardness mg L-1 103.78 101.62 134.05 101.62 134.05 75-150 -
5 Free Carbondioxide (CO2) mg L-1 <7.04 <7.04 <7.04 <7.04 <7.04 < 10 -
6 Total Phosphate mg L-1 0.041 0.068 1.248 0.036 1.248 0.2 0.03
7 Ammonia (NH3-N) mg L-1 0.599 0.721 0.185 0.575 0.185 <0.02 - -
8 Nitrate (NO3-N) mg L-1 1.420 1.256 0.547 1.335 0.547 < 10
9 Nitrite (NO2-N) mg L-1 0.007 0.008 0.050 <0.005 0.050 < 0.06
10 Arsenic (As) mg L-1 0.0157 0.0132 0.0150 0.0113 0.0150 <1 0.05
11 Silver (Ag) mg L-1 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 - -
12 Nickel (Ni) mg L-1 0.038 0.033 0.173 0.066 0.173 - 0.05
13 Total Chromium (Cr) mg L-1 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 - -
14 Stannum (Sn) mg L-1 0.014 0.032 0.038 0.027 0.038 -
15 Cadmium (Cd) mg L-1 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 < 0.01 0.01
16 Copper (Cu) mg L-1 0.014 0.028 0.154 0.019 0.154 < 0.02 0.02
17 Iron (Fe) mg L-1 0.082 0.332 4.948 0.119 4.948 - -
18 Lead (Pb) mg L-1 0.045 0.051 0.057 0.060 0.057 <0.03 0.03
19 Manganese (Mn) mg L-1 0.054 0.063 0.107 0.024 0.107 - 0.4
20 Mercury (Hg) mg L-1 0.0012 0.0010 0.0012 0.0008 0.0012 < 0.002 0.002
21 Zinc (Zn) mg L-1 0.029 0.010 0.823 0.030 0.823 < 0.05 0.05
22 Permanganate Value (TOM) mg KMnO4 L-1 7.58 7.84 10.36 5.56 10.36 - -
III Microbiology
1 Total Coliform MPN 100 mL-1 <1.8 4.5 23 <1.8 23 5000 5000
2 Fecal Coli MPN 100 mL-1 <1.8 4.5 4.5 <1.8 4.5 1000 1000
*Indonesian National Standard on Oreochromis niloticus Bleeker enlargement class in lentic water, PP = Government Regulation.
Open Access 4147 The brightness or transparency of the waters at all
sampling locations has the same depth, 20 cm. Based on SNI 7500:2009, the brightness is still slightly below the reference value of 30-40 cm; while using the PP No. 22/2021 quality standard, the brightness of 20 cm is quite far from the minimum requirement of 400 cm.
Other water physical parameters are temperature with a value range of 28.9-31.9 oC, which is still within the reference value limit based on SNI 7500:2009, which is 25-35 oC. A decrease in water temperature below 25 °C will reduce the digestibility of fish to the food consumed, while a drop in temperature below 14
°C can cause the death of fish that live in the tropics.
Temperatures that rise above the threshold can cause pressure or stress on fish due to a lack of oxygen due to decreased solubility of dissolved oxygen in the waters. In situ parameters of chemical components in the form of pH and DO (dissolved oxygen) generally still meet the quality standards and reference values, except for the DO value at the bottom of the middle and outlet waters.
The measured pH value has a range of 6-7, which still meets the quality standard of 6-9 and the reference value of 6.5-8.5. The pH parameter is one of the critical parameters in water bodies such as ponds or lakes that will be used for cultivation. The pH value for water bodies will generally have a constant value so that if the water is too acidic, it will be challenging to manage so that the pH value becomes normal or within the required range. A pH value above 10 can kill fish, while a pH below 5 can result in stunted fish growth.
SNI 7550:2009 requires the DO content in waters for Tilapia cultivation to be at least 3 mg L-1. In contrast, the quality standard based on PP No. 82/2001 and PP No. 22/2021 requires a higher value, at least 4 mg L-1. The DO values at the sampling location on the surface ranged from 4.6 to 5.6 mg L-1. The bottom waters at the middle and the outlet have the same value of 0.8 mg L-1, while at the bottom, the inlet has a much higher value of 4.1 mg L-1. These conditions indicate low oxygen input to water bodies due to slow flow.
Another possibility is the relatively higher organic matter content in the middle of the outlet resulting in the depletion of DO content because it is used for the organic matter decomposition process. The high content of organic matter at the bottom of the middle and outlet waters can be assessed from the Total Organic Matter (TOM) parameter value of 10.36 mg L-1 at both locations, which is higher than other locations, 5.56-7.84 mg L-1.
Chemical parameters of water quality can be divided into nutrients, anions-cations, and heavy metals. Nutrients in water were assessed from the parameters of total phosphate, ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite, which generally did not meet the quality standards except for nitrate and nitrite. The total phosphate concentration ranged from 0.036 to 1.248 mg L-1, which did not meet the lake water quality standard based on PP No. 22/2021 of 0.03 mg L-1. However, compared with the PP No. 82/2001 quality standard, only the bottom of the middle and the bottom
of the outlet have a concentration of 1.248 mg L-1, which did not meet the quality standard of 0.2 mg L-1. The difference in the value of the quality standard is because PP No. 22/2021 has specifically separated the quality standards of rivers and lakes, while PP No.
82/2001 still uses typical freshwater. The total Phosphate parameter is often used as a key parameter to assess the carrying capacity of water for aquaculture activities. The residue of the feed and fish feces entering the water body will increase the water's phosphate value. An increased nitrogen:phosphate ratio can cause plankton blooms and other water dynamics disturbances.
Following the Ministerial Regulation of the Environment No. 28 of 2009 on Water Pollution Carrying Capacity of Lakes and Reservoirs, trophic status (water fertility status) based on total phosphate concentration has the following criteria: Oligotrophs (0.01 mg L-1), Mesotrophs (0.03 mg L-1), Eutrophic (<0.1 mg L-1) and Hypereutrophic (>0.1 mg L-1).
Trophic status may reflect the fertility of the waters and also reflect the pollution burden in the waters.
Oligotrophic are waters that tend to be poor in nutrients; mesotrophic describe waters with moderate fertility, eutrophic is fertile, and hypereutrophic are very fertile waters. When linked to the pollution level, oligotrophic are unpolluted waters, while hypereutrophic are highly polluted waters. The standard quality value of total phosphate based on PP No. 22/2021 is 0.03 mg L-1, equivalent to mesotrophic status (moderate fertility or low pollution burden).
Based on the total phosphate concentration, V1 waters on the surface layer are categorized as mesotrophic waters with a low pollution burden so that it still has enough carrying capacity to cover the load of cultivation. Ammonia parameters did not have standard quality values in PP No. 82/2001 or PP No.
22/2021 for Class II quality requirements.
Nevertheless, there is a note in the information column of PP No. 82/2001 that for the fisheries, the free ammonia content for sensitive fish is ≤0.02 mg L-1 as NH3. Ammonia concentrations in all sampling locations ranged from 0.185 to 0.721 mg L-1, all of which exceeded the reference value of 0.02 mg L-1 based on SNI 7550:2009. Ammonia in surface water may come from domestic waste, microbiological oxidation of organic substances, and industrial wastewater. Ammonia levels in water increase in line with increasing pH and water temperature. Ammonia is poisonous to farmed fish at concentrations above 1.5 mg L-1. In some cases, the acceptable concentration is only 0.025 mg L-1 (Chen et al., 2006; Kamstra et al., 2017). However, some actions can be taken to reduce the Ammonia content, such as increasing aeration (Bartelme et al., 2017; Wahyuningsih and Gitarama, 2020). Alkalinity indicates the buffering capacity of bicarbonate ions and, to a certain extent, also indicates buffering of carbonate and hydroxide ions in water.
The higher the alkalinity, the higher the water's ability to buffer so that the pH fluctuation of the water is low.
Alkalinity values at all sampling locations in the range
Open Access 4148 of 80-140 mg L-1 can describe waters with a suitable
buffer capacity. Hardness values at all sampling locations ranged from 101.62 to 134.05 mg L-1, which still meet the criteria of moderate hardness (moderately hard water) with a range of 75-150 mg L-
1. The waters allocated for aquaculture should contain free carbon dioxide levels <5 mg L-1. A free carbon dioxide level of 10 mg L-1 can still be tolerated by the original aquatic organism, accompanied by sufficient oxygen levels (Boyd et al., 2018; Sumiarsih, 2021). All sampling locations have a free carbon dioxide value of
<7.04 mg L-1, so it can be assessed as good for the life of aquatic organisms.
The concentration of heavy metals generally meets the quality standard or is not detected based on the detection limit of the methods and tools used, except for lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). The concentration of the Pb parameter at all sampling locations did not meet the quality standard of 0.03 mg L-1, while the Zn parameter that did not meet the quality standard (0.05 mg L-1) is at the bottom of the middle and outlet waters.
The high concentration of the two parameters can be assessed as a natural condition that may be sourced from the metal content in the soil around the V1 location that is flushed and dissolved into the water.
The microbiological components of waters analyzed through the presence of Coliform bacteria in V1 waters still meet the quality standards of 5000 MPN 100 mL-1 for total Coliform bacteria and 1,000 MPN 100 mL-1 for total Coliform bacteria. The abundance of Total and Faecal Coliform bacteria in the surface layer far from the quality standard and even below the detection limit indicates that the waters of V1 have not been contaminated by domestic household waste, especially from human excrement.
Lieke et al. (2020) stated that water conditions that are not good and contain many germs and bacteria could enter the fish's body tissue, accelerating the fish's rotting. Therefore, the low abundance of bacteria in V1 waters supports fish farming.
Based on the laboratory measurements and analysis results, two parameters did not meet the quality standards for aquaculture: Ammonia and Brightness. While other parameters such as temperature, DO, pH, zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb) meet the set quality standards. The iron (Fe) parameter, which is quite high at the Water Treatment Point location, does not really influence the water quality in V1.
Based on the measurement results, the ammonia concentration in V1 waters is 0.01-0.23 mg L-1. However, Sriyasak et al. (2015) and Abu-Elala et al.
(2016) stated that the death of tilapia was found a few days after the fish were transferred to the water containing free ammonia (Un-ionized ammonia/UIA) greater than 2 mg L-1, which indicated that Un-ionized ammonia plays a vital role on fish aquaculture cold chain. Early fish mortality at longer exposure durations started at free Ammonia concentrations above 2 mg L-1. Free ammonia begins to interfere with metabolism, especially fish consumption, starting at a concentration of 0.08 mg L-1. So, the use of a value of 0.02 mg L-1 as
a reference value for the Ammonia parameter in SNI 7550:2009 is not appropriate because the form of ammonia in the primary literature is mentioned as free ammonia.
Environment restoration to build sustainable functioned buffer zone to support aquaculture activities
Related to the condition of the aquaculture site (void), the action that needs to be taken to overcome some of the parameters that did not meet the quality standards or reference values is to apply several treatment efforts that are designed not only to improve the values of these parameters. Macro treatment is also designed for environmental management to support aquaculture activities' sustainable development. Treatment efforts include developing the fish farming site into a wetland ecosystem development area as a natural filter and applying nanobubble technology or aeration to increase dissolved oxygen levels in the waters. The existing void edge for wetland ecosystem application is presented in Figure 2. The treatment will certainly take time for the system to function optimally. The time required depends on the severity of the parameter conditions that exceed the quality standard threshold and the site location area. If the conditions are not too extreme, the prediction of the time needed for optimal functioning is around 4-8 months, with monitoring at least once a month (monthly). The working process of the treatment system can be accelerated by conducting activities that help accelerate the process. One of them is escalating the cultivation site to the potential addition of contaminants by creating a wetland ecosystem. The development of the farming area into a wetland ecosystem area directly in the water body (floating treatment wetland) and on the edge of the void (wetland ecosystem development) aims as a natural filter to improve environmental quality.
The planting plan for the wetland ecosystem is to plant shrubs and trees whose natural habitat is the wetlands. The selected species include pioneer species and local plants that can be submerged for a certain period according to their natural habitat. When mature, the types of plants used will be home to various animals ranging from macro to micro. In addition, in managing regional water systems, these plants will maintain water availability and simultaneously filter water in the area from various materials, compounds, and pollutant elements carried into water bodies. At the void basin, several types and numbers of tree plants that can be planted are applied to create and develop a wetland ecosystem in both V1 and V2 voids (Tables 2 and 3).
Priority commodities to develop on post-mining voids in Malinau
After being filled with water, excavated coal mines will form artificial lakes that are lentic waters with very slow currents. The movement dynamics of water mass are relatively small. They only occur on the
Open Access 4149 surface of the water due to the wind on the surface of
the water forming surface water circulation, which affects the solubility of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water by diffusion. The larger the surface area of the lake, the more open the lake's surface to the air, the
greater the water circulation due to wind movement on the water's surface, and the greater the water's DO. In a vast lake, the DO in the water is relatively high and constant in the high seas, equaling the DO in rivers that are lotic waters or flowing waters.
Figure 2. Existing void edge for wetland ecosystem application (photo by Budi Prabowo).
Table 2. Type of tree vegetation that can be planted on the V1 basin.
No Scientific names Local names Numbers Unit
A Alstonia scholaris Pulai 30 pole
B Calophyllum inophyllum Nyamplung 121 pole
C Campnosperma macrophylla Terentang 73 pole
D Dyera lowii Jelutung rawa 48 pole
E Ficus racemose Beringin air 20 pole
F Leucacena leucocephala Lamtoro 60 pole
G Samanea saman Trembesi 136 pole
Total Trees 488 pole
Table 3. Type of tree vegetation that can be planted on the V2 basin.
No Scientific names Local names Numbers Unit
A Alstonia scholaris Pulai 254 pole
B Calophyllum inophyllum Nyamplung 223 pole
C Campnosperma macrophylla Terentang 111 pole
D Dyera lowii Jelutung rawa 56 pole
E Ficus racemosa Beringin air 170 pole
F Gonystylus bancanus Ramin 111 pole
G Koompasia excelsa Kempas 278 pole
H Melaleuca leucadendra Kayuputih 278 pole
I Shorea balangeran Balangeran 56 pole
Total Trees 1537 pole
Open Access 4150 The dimensions and conditions of still waters and the
level of DO in the water will affect the type or species of aquaculture (commodity) to be developed. With an area of 50.26 ha, potential commodities that can be developed based on suitability to fish physiology can be grouped into two categories: 1) very suitable and 2) suitable. Particularly suitable species are Patin or Pangasius (Pangasius sp.), gabus or snakehead fish (Channa striata), toman or great snakehead (Channa micropeltes), baung (Hemibagrus sp.), lele or catfish (Clarias sp.), giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy), tambakan or kissing gouramy (Helostoma temminckii); while suitable species are ikan mas or carp (Cyprinus carpio), jelawat or mad Barb (Leptobarbus hoevenii), semah or masheer fish (Tor sp) and nila or tilapia (Oreochromis sp.).
The first group of fish is a species that naturally inhabits swampy waters or has an additional respiratory apparatus in the form of a labyrinth located in a cavity behind or above the gills so that it can utilize oxygen from the air above the water surface. The second group is river fish that usually live in flowing waters with a relatively high DO content. Tilapia from the Nile in Africa naturally inhabit rivers with weak currents so that they can adapt to still waters. However, based on market considerations and the level of stability in technology and industry, the commodity with the most potential to be developed is tilapia and pangasius. Both entities have technological and industrial stability from upstream (on-farm) to downstream (off-farm). Downstream, this fish is processed into high-value products in the form of
fillets which are well known and have a vast market share, both local and export.
Level of community acceptance
The community's perception is necessary to measure how far the aquaculture in the void development plan can be accepted. There are four focus subjects to explore the community perceptions of the development of activities: public perceptions of companies, public perceptions of water conditions in voids for aquaculture, knowledge and experience on aquaculture, and human resources or groups in villages regarding aquaculture and existing fisheries organizations (Table 4). Perception of the company can show the pattern of relations between the company and the community so far. In Labanyarit Village, the company's perception is good due to good relations but still depends on the company's input. In Sengayan Village, the company's perception is also very positive but pragmatic. They do not rely on company input but do not anticipate other solutions besides being part of the company. In Nunuk Tanah Kibang Village, the company's perception is negative because considered the company has not implemented a program that touches on economic empowerment. In Long Loreh Village and Malinau Kota Village, the company's perception is positive, and they are in a position to support the company-supported community program.
In Langap Village, the company is considered positive, and the community appreciates the company's assistance by being to self-help, the same as Tanjung Nanga Village.
Table 4. Components of community perception of cultivation in the void.
No Village Perception on company
Perception on void Aquaculture experience
Established organization 1 Laban Nyarit Positive, tend to
be dependent Risky, water is not
safe to consume Once, failed, not
sustained Exist
2 Sengayan Positive, tend to
be pragmatic Neutral, no opinion Once, subsistence and
recreational Not exist 3 Nunuk Tanah
Kibang
Negative, tend to be demanding
Neutral, no opinion Once, subsistence Not exist 4 Long Loreh Positive, tend to
be supporting Prospective for
floating cage Once, not sustained Once, now is being initiated 5 Langap Positive, tend to
be appreciative
Neutral, no opinion Once, subsistence Exist, just established 6 Tanjung
Nanga Positive, tend to
be appreciative Prospective, can be
managed Never Not exist
7 Malinau Kota Positive, tend to
be appreciative Neutral, no opinion Once, under the assistance of the fishery office
Exist, still operating
Regarding the perception of post-mining voids, all villages do not know about the use of voids for aquaculture, so the community does not see any prospects from voids. But according to Labanyarit Village, the void water is unfit for consumption, so it is dangerous for living things. At the same time, Long Loreh and Tanjung Nanga villages believe that the
void can be used as a floating cage location managed by the village communities who have been intensely trained. The similarity is that all villages do not know exactly what the environmental quality of the voids in water bodies is and still keep their distance from the voids. Regarding aquaculture experience indicators, basic cultivation training has only been implemented
Open Access 4151 in Malinau Kota Village and Labanyarit Village, while
in other villages, it has not been experienced. The relatively advanced aquaculture training is located in Malinau Kota Village because it gets assistance from the Regency Fisheries Office and receives the assistance of biofloc facilities. In addition, the community has also managed its ponds on a self-taught basis. Meanwhile, in Long Loreh Village, training and implementation of aquaculture programs in cages in voids have been carried out and produced.
From 2007-2012 there was an aquaculture group assisted by the Malinau Regency Fisheries Office, but it did not continue. These two villages have problems with the absence of organizational/group management capabilities, no business plans, and reliance on external funds. Meanwhile, in other study villages, they have never received any aquaculture training, so the fish-farming is still limited to self- consumption/subsistence or recreation. Even so, all villages admit their market is in the South Malinau District, Malinau Regency, or North Kalimantan Province. The indicators of the organization formed, specifically the new aquaculture organizations, are in the Village of Malinau Kota and Desa Labanyarit. In the village of Malinau Kota, the organization is effective and has relatively good planning and management. Meanwhile, Labanyarit Village is not sustainable due to poor organizational management, lack of business planning, and dependence on external parties. Meanwhile, in Sengayan and Nunuk Tanah Kibang villages, there is aquaculture on an individual basis, and no groups are established. Langap Village is only in the stage of forming a cultivation group.
In general, the status of community institutions in Ring I village is still at a minimum level and requires significant capacity building. Only Malinau Kota Village has sufficient basic skills to cultivate a commercial scale. A large enough intervention is needed to build the stages of institutional development that can be started by uniting each strength in each variable in each village and carrying out capacity development gradually or gradually until the four indicators can be met to the maximum threshold.
Conclusion
The study results indicated that chemical biophysically, coal mine voids can be converted into freshwater cultivation areas. The results of physical tests based on temperature, odor, brightness, and water depth parameters showed that the values were below the threshold of quality standards, so they were considered suitable for freshwater fish farming.
However, specifically for color, the results are within the point of 50 TCU at the surface outlet - 162 TCU at the bottom inlet. Treatment is needed to overcome this water color problem and allow water to move faster through turbines to reduce the concentration of suspended solids, especially on the surface. The results of chemical tests on water indicated that some
chemical elements were above the nationally determined threshold for nutrient, anions-cations, and heavy metal parameters. In the nutrient parameter, only nitrate and nitrite were below the threshold.
Meanwhile, total phosphate and ammonia were above the point due to the entry of nutrients, household waste, organic materials, and industrial waste into the void.
So PT MAP must increase aeration in the water by installing turbines, nano bubbles, and natural vegetation to absorb nutrients and to rehabilitate the area in the void basin first. The anions-cations parameter indicated that the water is safe for aquaculture because it is below the threshold.
Meanwhile, for heavy metal parameters, lead (Pb) has a value above the tolerance threshold due to flushing, which causes the lead in the soil to enter the void water. On microbiological parameters in water, both Coliform and total Coliform concentrations were below the quality standards.
On the social aspect, the level of public acceptance of the company is relatively positive, but there is no community preference for cultivation in voids. So the intervention needed for the company is the involvement of the community in the education framework in a pilot or demo plot scheme to introduce, prove and encourage the community to use the void as a location for aquaculture. Regarding some exceeded parameters, two approaches can be applied:
technological methods using turbines and nano bubbles to increase DO levels; and a natural way by applying a wetland ecosystem on the surface and the basin of the void. Meanwhile, the community can be exposed to capacity strengthening, involve the community as implementers and supporters, and ensure that efforts to restore the surrounding area through establishing a wetland ecosystem and planting are carried out appropriately.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Center for Coastal and Marine Resources Studies/PKSPL IPB University as the party who provided data and information related to the needs of writing this paper. The authors also extend our appreciation to PT MAP for facilitating this study to be carried out in locations required by the study team. A part of this article was presented at the 2nd International Conference on Environment, Socio-Economic, and Health Impacts of Degraded and Mining Lands, 30-31st August 2022, University of Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia.
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