CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the literature review of this research. This chapter includes the definition of strategic competence, types of strategic competence, criteria of strategic competence in speaking English, the definition of speaking, speaking stages of students, types of speaking skills, speaking problem, thesis defence examination, and previous related studies.
2.1. Strategic Competence
Strategic competence is one of the competencies that contribute in communicative competence. Swain (1984) describes that strategic competence is communication strategies that can be used to increase communication effectiveness and offset congestion.
Also, Canale & Swain (1980) describe the strategic competence is viewed to point to the verbal and nonverbal communication strategies that may be appealed into action to competence. Also, Tarone (1983) in Dawit (2020) stated that strategic competence is the ability to convey information to a listener and correctly interpret information received. It includes the use of communication strategies to solve problems that arise in the process of conveying the information. According to the definitions above, the researcher can conclude that strategic competence is the ability to increase communication effectiveness.
Previously, communication could have been better understood due to several factors.
2.1.1. Criteria of Strategic Competence in Speaking English
Diana Tereschuck (2013) describes ‘four’ criterias of strategic competence that can be assessed on the speaking ability in English:
1. Cognitive
The abilities should be developed are:
1) Directing and evaluating an individual’s verbal and non-verbal action, feedback, and circumstance as a system of interrelationship between interlocutors.
2) The purpose of searching that manifests itself in focusing on the main communication task.
3) Prediction of the interlocutor’s reaction, the content of their speech and pronunciation.
4) Selection of facts, ideas, and semantic blocks.
5) Combination of facts and ideas.
6) Build and focus the content of part of speech.
7) Self-regulation that responsible for tactics in speech production.
2. Communicative
The abilities should be developed are:
1) Free usage of broad repertoire of lexico-grammatical structures, linking phrases and cliches (according to different types of monologues, dialogue, and polylogue).
2) Adequate pausing, articulatory and intonation framing of speech.
3) Compliance with conventional norms of greeting and parting.
4) Relative continuity of speech.
5) Relative completion of utterances.
6) Addressing the audience.
7) Ability to clearly express self-idea.
8) Ability to provide logical and persuasive arguments.
9) Adequateness of language tone and style of communication.
10) Ability to discuss information on difficult topics linguistically and semantically smoothly.
11) Ability to quickly repair communicative bias or difficulties which are caused by specificity of a particular speech form.
3. Goal-Seeking
The abilities should be developed are:
1) Manifesting personal communicative intentions (tactical purposes).
2) Combining different tactics for maximally effective manifestion of strategies.
3) Manifesting self-personal global aim (strategic purpose).
4) Realization of common global purpose of communicative process.
5) Flexible changing of strategies.
4. Educational Compensatory
The abilities should be developed are:
1) Ability to adequately use non-verbal strategy ability to explain differently.
2) Ability to ask for help.
3) Operating big amounts of information for verbalizing communicative strategies.
4) Self-control and self-correction.
These criteria are usually assessed in all English subjects or classes. This is because the assessment is always related to interactions that use English as a first language (L1). In Indonesia, not all schools use English as their first language. English is still considered a second or foreign language in Indonesia. Only some schools or universities in Indonesia use English as a first language in the classroom. Usually, these institutions are international standards. So, these criteria cannot be used in all classes in Indonesia.
2.1.2. Strategic Competence Components
Celce-Murcia (1995) describes the framework regarding strategic competence. There are 5 main strategies:
1. Avoidance or reduction strategy, which includes:
1) Message Replacement
A communication strategy known as message replacement occurs when speakers "substitute the original message with a new one due to not feeling capable of implementing it" (Dornyei & Scott, 1997, p. 188).
2) Topic Avoidance
Dornyei & Scott (1997) define topic avoidance as “strategy for reducing the message by avoiding certain language structures or topics considered problematic language-wise or leaving out some intended elements for a lack of linguistic resources”.
3) Message Abandonment
Dornyei & Scott (1997) define message abandonment strategy as “Leaving a message unfinished because of some language difficulty”. According to the definition, message abandonment is a strategy where the speakers tend to leave their utterance stopped when they run into trouble finding the vocabulary or following phrases
2. Achievement or compensatory strategy, reaching communicative goal by manipulating the available language. The components included in this strategy:
1) Circumlocution
“Circumlocution strategy is applied by speaker through exemplifying, illustrating or describing the properties of the target object or action” (Dornyei
& Scott, 1997, p. 188).
2) Approximation
Dornyei & Scott (1997) define approximation strategy as “a strategy by using alternative lexical items, such as a superordinate or a related term which shares semantic features with the target word or structure”.
3) All-Purpose Words
All-purpose words is a strategy of extending a general, “empty” lexical item to contexts where specific words are lacking. For examples the overuse of thing, stuff, make, do, as well as words like thingie, what-do-you-call-it (Dornyei & Scott, 1997, p. 188).
4) Non-Linguistics Means
Dornyei & Scott (1997) describe non-linguistics means strategy as “describing whole concepts nonverbally, or accompanying a verbal strategy with a visual illustration”.
5) Restructuring
“Restructuring is abandoning the execution of a verbal plan because of language difficulties, leaving the utterance unfinished, and communicating the intended message according to an alternative plan” (Dornyei & Scott, 1997).
6) Word-Coinage
Word coinage is a strategy when speakers “creating a non-existing L2 word by applying a supposed L2 rule to an existing L2 word” (Dornyei & Scott, 1997).
7) Literal Translation from L1
Literal translation from L1 strategy is “Translating literally a lexical item, an idiom, a compound word or structure from L1/L3 to L2” (Dornyei & Scott 1997).
8) Foreignizing
Foreignizing strategy is a strategy of “Using a L1/L3 word by adjusting it to L2 phonology (i.e., with a L2 pronunciation) and/or morphology” (Dornyei &
Scott 1997).
9) Code-Switching
Code-switching strategy is a strategy of “including L1/L3 words with L1/L3 pronunciation in L2 speech; this may involve stretches of discourse ranging
from single words to whole chunks and even complete turns” (Dornyei & Scott 1997).
10) Retrieval
Retrieval strategy is a strategy “in an attempt to retrieve a lexical item saying a series of incomplete or wrong forms or structures before reaching the optimal form” (Dornyei & Scott 1997).
3. Stalling or time-gaining strategy, which includes:
1) Fillers, Hesitation device & Gambits
Dornyei & Scott (1997) describe this strategy as “using gambits to fill pauses, to stall, and to gain time in order to keep the communication channel open and maintain discourse at times of difficulty”.
2) Self and Other Repetition
Dornyei & Scott (1997) describe self and other repetition strategy as
“repeating a word or a string of words immediately after they were said and repeating something the interlocutor said to gain time”.
4. Self-monitoring strategy, which includes:
1) Self-Initiated Repair
Dornyei & Scott (1997) describe self-initiated repair strategy as “making self- initiated corrections in one’s own speech”.
2) Self-Rephrasing
Dornyei & Scott (1997) describe self-rephrasing strategy as “repeating a term, but not quite as it is, but by adding something or using paraphrase”. Self-
rephrasing is a strategy that involves using a different word that has the same meaning (e.g., hat and cap).
5. Interactional strategy, which includes:
1) Appeals for Help
There are two types of appeals for help: direct and indirect. The experts Dornyei & Scott (1997) describe direct appeals for help strategy as “turning to the interlocutor for assistance by asking an explicit question concerning a gap in one’s L2 knowledge”. And indirect appeals for help strategy as “trying to elicit help from the interlocutor indirectly by expressing lack of a needed L2 item either verbally or nonverbally”.
2) Indicators of Non/Misunderstanding
When speaker do not understand what the interlocutors are saying, they often respond by making a gesture or expressing non-understanding in both verbal and non-verbal ways (e.g., "Can you repeat that again?") or by using an interpretive summary (e.g., "Oh, I see. What did you mean?"). In addition to using these expressions, speakers can also ask for clarification by using words like "can you repeat that?" or "did you say?" or by asking for a repetition by using words like "pardon?".
3) Responses
Responses strategy are frequently applied as a strategy for effective communication. As a strategy when the speaker is having trouble understanding what is being said, it can also be used as a response to someone speech. According to Celce-Murcia’s framework (1995), there are
seven types of response strategy, namely repetition, rephrasing, expansion, reduction, confirmation, rejection, and repair.
4) Comprehension Check
According to Dornyei & Scott (1997), comprehension check is “asking questions to check that the interlocutor can follow you”. And also, according to the framework developed by Celce-Murcia (1995), a comprehension check is used to determine whether the listener/interlocutor can understand the speaker, whether what the speaker said was correct or grammatically correct, and whether the listener is paying attention.
2.2. Speaking
Speaking is one of the basic skills involved in any language skills, including English. When learning or using a language, someone cannot be separated from the ability to involve that person in speaking. Speaking skill is a crucial skill to develop when learning a second or foreign language, and the success of language learning is judged by learners’ ability to speak the language. Most people who are learning a language, on the other hand, want to be able to communicate. English speaking skill requires the use of authentic language by the speaker, which indicates that learners or students should use the language in all situations or when communicating with other students in an academic place.
According to Solcova (2011), speaking is an interactive process in which individuals alternate their roles as speakers and listeners and employ both verbal and non- verbal language to reach their communicative goals. Speaking is a similar way saying that
speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning using verbal and non-verbal symbols in a variey of context. Also, Chaney (1998) describes speaking as a process of creating and communicating meaning and information in a variety of circumstances via the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols. Another statement by Brown (1994) and Burns and Joyce (1997) states that speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves generating, obtaining, and processing information. From the definition above, the researcher can conclude that speaking is an interactive process, including two or more people sharing, processing, and gaining the meaning of information or message through verbal and non-verbal language.
2.2.1. Speaking Stages of Students
In ‘Factor Effecting Students’ English-Speaking Skills’ (2011) by Marriam, M.
Azeem, and Dr. Ashiq, there are 5 stages of learners’ or students’ process in learn speaking in English:
1. Stage 1: Pre-production
Unless the speaker is talking about something the learner is watching, or the language being taught is closely related to another language the learners know, the learners will struggle to understand anything. The learners might memorize some vocabulary and grammatical structures through comprehension activities.
2. Stage 2: Early production
If the learner already knows the non-linguistic content of what he or she is hearing or if the communication situation is very predictable, stage two inputs are understandable. Learners are now attempting to utter certain words.
Students can use memorized short linguistic chunks, though these chunks may not always be used correctly. Learners pay closer attention to their chatty classmates and expand their vocabulary.
3. Stage 3: Speech emergence
Students at this stage have better vocabulary and communicate with others using simple phrases and sentences. They can ask simple questions that are grammatically correct or incorrect. Students strive to have short conversations with their classmates. They can read and understand simple stories. The students can understand the new information at this stage, but it can still be helpful if the information meets the needs of the new speaker. Therefore, it is often necessary to negotiate the meaning.
4. Stage 4: Intermediate fluency
At the intermediate level, English learners can express opinions and share their thoughts using more complex spoken and written sentences. They can ask questions to clarify what they learned in classroom. Learners can work with some teacher support to increase understanding of all subject content. At this stage, students can use different strategies to learn English content. Teachers need to focus on learning strategies. Students at this stage can understand more complex concepts.
5. Stage 5: Advanced fluency
Students will be near-native in terms of their ability to perform in content area learning at this stage. Students have need constant classroom assistance in reading, writing, and speaking. In stage 5, students have increased his ability
to participate in discussions without any prior preparation by using his vocabulary.
With the steps indicated by the experts above, it can be concluded that any students who has the ability to speak English should go through numerous stages in order to be able to communicate effectively in English.
2.2.2. Types of Speaking Skill
Brown (2004) describes six categories of speaking skills, which includes:
1. Imitative
This category includes the ability to practice intonation and focus on some specific elements of the languages form. This is just an imitation of a word, phrase, or sentence. The important thing here is to focus on pronunciation. The teacher use drilling in the teaching learning process. The reason is by using the drill, students get a chance to listen and repeat some of the words orally.
2. Intensive
This is a speaking performance for students practicing some phonological and grammatical aspects of the language. Students typically perform tasks in pairs (group work). For example, reading aloud including reading the paragraph, reading conversations with partners in sequence, and reading information from chart.
3. Responsive
Responsive performance includes understanding interactions and tests, but very short conversations, standard greetings, small conversation, and simple
request and comments. This is a type of short reply to a question or comment initiated by a teacher or student.
4. Transactional (dialogue)
Its purpose is to convey or exchange specific information. For example, here is a pair completed conversation.
5. Interpersonal (dialogue)
It is more about maintaining social relations than it is about conveying facts and information. Interpersonal oral performance takes the form of interviews, role-plays discussions, dialogues, and games.
6. Extensive (monologue)
Teacher provides students with extended monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, storytelling, and short speeches.
Also, Brown (2004) states that there are number of different components of speaking. The purpose is to provide a taxonomy of skills form which the teacher will choose one or more that will act as targets for students to learn speaking strategies that effective to be applied. In this situation, there are two types of speaking skill:
1. Micro-Skills
According to Brown (2004), micro-skills consist of the production of smaller language parts, such as phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phasal units. He also highlights the importance micro skills of training oral communication. One aspect is the signifance of concentrating on both the
forms and functions of the language. The following are some examples of the skills:
1) Students can produce English stress patterns, English phonemes and allophonic variants, word in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.
2) Students can use grammatical word classes (adjective, adverb, etc) systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, and rules.
3) Students can express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms:
using cohesive devices in oral discourse.
2. Macro-Skills
According to Brown (2004), macro-skills are the speaker’s concentration on larger components including fluency, discourse, function, style, cohesiveness, non-verbal communication, and optional strategic. The following use some examples of the skills:
1) Students should perform appropriate communicative tasks in accordance with the situation, the audience, and the goals.
2) Students identify connections and relationships between events and connected in the communication or interaction such as main ideas, supporting ideas, new information, given information, generalizations, and examples.
3) Students can use facial expressions, kinesthetic, body language, and other non-verbal language in accordance with verbal language to convey meaning.
Based on the theory above, the researcher can conclude that there are some points to consider in evaluating speaking. Students should at least know pronunciation, vocabulary, and language features to use. Once the student is prepared for the activity, the language can be used properly.
2.2.3. Speaking Problem
Dea Aries Fitriani, Rahayu & Wardah (2015) in their study of Students’ English- Speaking Problems in Speaking Performance. Richard (2008) states that some linguistics issues can influence someone ability to talk, such as bad grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
1. Vocabulary
The problem of vocabulary occurs when a person lacks the necessary vocabulary to communicate and does not understand how to put the vocabulary together in a good sentence. Khan (2005) states that a large majority of students learning English as a second language have difficulty using words and expressions in conversation.
2. Grammar
According to Celce-Murcia (2001), grammar become tough since learners do not learn structures one at a time. Even when the learners appear to have mastered a particular structure, backsliding is common when new forms are introduced to the learners’ interlanguage.
3. Pronunciation
Pronunciation is just as crucial as syntax and vocabulary in learning a new language. Correct pronunciation is essential for improving speaking ability.
Pronunciation is interviewed with other disciplines such as listening and even grammar. When a person can correctly pronounce the endings of words. For example, he can also provide grammatical information.
2.3. Conversation
The most fundamental way of communicating with others is probably through conversation. People achieve a wide range of daily goals through discussion, including information sharing, relationship development, and problem solving. According to William S. Horton (2017), the term "conversation" can be used to describe a range of interactions with other people, such as text messages received from a smartphone or conversations held via e-mail at work. The fact that two or more people are interacting in a communicative and interactive exchange is what most conversations have in common.
Also, Brennan (2010) describes conversation as a “joint activity in which two or more participants use linguistic forms and nonverbal signals to communicate interactively”. A conversation is more than just several messages produced as speaking turns, received, and processed by the interlocutor. Real conversation is spontaneous rather than pre- written; it is influenced by the speakers’ and interlocutors’ synchronized actions. A conversation between two individuals is called dialogue (although the terms dialogue and conversation are often used interchangeably).
2.4. Thesis Defence Examination
According to Hasan (1994), the TDE is referred to by different names in various nations. For instance, in the USA, the TDE is known as an institutionalized pedagogical activity. "Viva voce" is the name for it in the UK and Australia. Meanwhile, it is referred to as a "public defence" in most European nations. Depending on the degree level, it is referred to as ujian skripsi, ujian tesis, or ujian disertasi in Indonesia. The three levels of degrees offered by Indonesian institutions are primarily S1 (Undergraduate, four-year Batchelor), S2 (Masters), and S3 (Doctorate or PhD), and their respective designations.
They must go through a TDE process in order to finish any of these degrees. They cannot receive a degree if they do not graduate. Thesis defense examination (TDE) requires students to present their work and respond to questions from the examiners in English.
For the EED (English Education Department) students to perform well in a TDE, English is therefore particularly crucial. It is believed that students' proficiency in oral presenting will rise as a result of their ability to comprehend the TDE genre. It is expected of students to be able to talk, listen, read, and write in English. At the conclusion of their undergraduate studies, students are required to do research and compose an English- language thesis. The project ought to be concerned with a difficulty in language instruction. The students must present their theses in a TDE after finishing their work.
In other words, the researcher thinks that the thesis defence examination (TDE) is designed to test students' ability to present their research topic, describe the findings, and build and support their arguments. The TDE offers students the chance to demonstrate their research expertise and oral presentation abilities in their field of study.
2.5. Previous Studies
There are some previous studies conducted related to this research topic. The researcher took three previous studies, which will be explained below.
1. The first study was a study by Desy Wulandari published in 2020. The title of the first previous study is “An Analysis on Strategic Competence In Transactional Conversation.” The researcher in this study aims to display the profile of strategic competence that English Department students of UNNES have acquired in the academic year of 2018//2019 in the transactional conversation course. The participants in this research were the students in semester two who enrolled in a transactional conversation class. Thirty students participated in this research, involving 26 local students and four international students. The research design used in this study was descriptive qualitative. The finding of this study shows that the profile of strategic competence employed by the students was not accurately possessed. The students were unable to apply strategic competence effectively and properly. They (English Department semester two students) are still lacking in several points, which may impact their speaking skills since learners who can apply methods effectively the strategies tend to learn languages better and faster than those who are strategically inept.
2. The second study was a study by Selin published in 2014. The title of the second previous study is “Developing Strategic Competence in Oral Interaction in English as a Foreign Language.” The researcher in this study aims to investigate the development of strategic competencies employed by EFL learners in oral communication in his thesis. He wanted to see if there were any qualitative
differences in the student’s ability to apply strategic competence, especially in adjusting language to the interlocutor and situation. He suggested that strategic competencies might be learned. He also stated that strategic skill is better acquired through natural dialogue but that formal teaching is not impossible.
3. The third study was a study by Amelia Kartikawati published in 2016. The title of this previous study is “An Analysis of Strategic Competence Of English Junior High School Teachers.” The researcher in this study aim to:
1) Identify the strategic competence used by the English teachers in the seventh grade of SMPN 29 Semarang, Central Java.
2) Analyze the classroom situation effectiveness of the strategic competence used by the English teachers in the seventh grade of SMPN 29 Semarang, Central Java.
Three English teachers taught the seventh grade at SMPN 29 in Semarang, Central Java. The first teacher was in charge of six seventh-grade classes. The second teacher only had one class in seventh grade. The third teacher also taught only one class of the seventh-grade class. Because most of the information in this study was explained through words, descriptive qualitative research was used as a research design. The findings of this study are:
1) Teachers can use more than one strategic competence in the same classroom situation. The strategies used by the English teachers fulfilled the cognitive, communicative, goal-seeking, and educational-compensatory criteria.
2) Class VII A-VII E was classified as effective classrooms. Class VII F-VII H as very effective classrooms. Both percentages were 80% for effective classrooms and 90% for very effective ones.
