AN ERROR ANALYSIS OF USING THE WO^D “IT”
(A case of the first year students of MAN I Salatiga in the
Academic Year of 2001/2002)
THESIS
Submitted to the Board o f Examiner in Partial Fulfillment o f The Requirements for the Degree o f Educational Islamic Studies (S.Pd.I)
In the English and Educational Department
B y :
Nurul Jazimah
NIM 113 97 004
E N G L I S H D E P A R T M E N T O F E D U C A T I O N A L F A C U L T Y
S T A T E I S L A M I C S T U D I E S I N S T I T U T E ( S T A I N )
S A L A T I G A
Drs. Sa’adi, M.Ag
The lecture of English Department Educational Faculty
State Islamic Studies Institute Salatiga
ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES
Salatiga, 15 o f January 2002
Case : N urul Jazim ah ’s Thesis
Dear,
The Head o f State Islamic Studies Institute Salatiga
Assalama ’alaikum \vr. wb.
Having read accurately and corrected Nurul Jazimah’s thesis entlited “AN
ERROR ANALYSIS OF USING THE WORD “IT” (A Case o f the First
Students o f MAN I Salatiga in the Academic Year o f 2001/2002)”. I have
decided and would like to propose that if could be accepted by the
educational faculty, . I hope it would be examined as soon as possible.
Wassalamu ’alaikum wr. wb
Consultant,
D E P A R T E M E N T O F R E L I G O U S A F F A I R S
STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE
SALATIGA
STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION
AN ERROR ANALYSIS OF USING THE WORLD ”IT” (A Case of The First Year Students o f MAN I Salatiga in The Academic o f Year 2001/2002)
N U R U L J A Z I M A H
113
.
97.004
Has been brought to the board o f examiners at 12 o f Dzulqo’idah 1422 H / 26 o f
Januari 2002, and hereby considered to fulfill the requirement o f the Degree o f Sarjana
Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I) in the English and Education Department,
12 Dzulqo’idah 1422 H Salatiga, — — ---
---26 Januari 2002 M
Board Examiners
MOTTO
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T
Praise belongs to Allah SWT, who created, who writes all the beautiful symphony in
Universe and always gives everything to us. Ain this chance, I would like to thank
greatly to :
1. P ro f Dr. M. Zuhri, as the chairman o f State Islamic Studies Institute (STAIN)
Salatiga
2. Drs. Imam Sutomo, M.Ag, as the head o f Educational Faculty.
3. Drs. sa ’adi M.Ag, as the head o f the English Department and as my
consultant, who gives me great attention, knowledge, and guidance.
4. All lecturers and staffs in STAIN Salatiga, thank you for your favour,
relationship, and kindness.
5. All my friends who have helped me in making this material, suggestion, and
guidance.
6. All K.tLChoirul D jihad’s and Al Qodri’s big family.
Finally, I confess that this material is very simple, and it is still far from
perfection. Iwould like to ask readers for criticizing, suggestions to me in
order to this material becomes correct. May Allah SWT bless us even' time.
Salatiga, 31th Desember 2001
The writer
DEDICATION
I would like dedicate it for them who have always been in my heart,
they are :
• Allah SWT, for my talents and many perfect things blessed.
• My mother Mrs Siti Nur Rohmah and K.H. Drs Choirul Djihad
• My beloved husban Hadizumroni, for love, caring and support.
• My sw eet little daughter Sarah Alfi Maiza
• My brother Miftahuddin
• My sister Umi Fatkhiah
• My parents in law Mrs. Sukirah Al Zarkasi (in memoriam), and My
father Al Qodri
• My beloved Thoyib Ahmadi's big family, K.H Nasafi, and K.H Machfudz
Ridwan, Lc.
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
B. Reason For Choosing The Topics 4
C. The Identification o f The Problems 6
D. The Limitation o f The Problems 6
E. The Statement o f The Problems ^ 6
F. The Objective o f The Problems 7
G. The Benefit ofThe Problems 7
H. The Literature Review 8
L Methodology o f Research 9
J. the Organisation o f the Problems 14
CHAPTER n. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A Mistake and Error 15
B. Error Analysis 16
C. The Causes or Sources o f Errors 18
D. The Use o f “It” in English Sentence 24
CHAPTER EL RESEARCH REPORT AND DATA PRESENTATION
A The History o f MAN I Salatiga 34
B. Hie General o f MAN I Salatiga in the Academic year o f
2001/2002 35
C. The Situation o f Teachers and Staffs 38
D. Data Presentation 43
CHAPTER IV. DATA ANALYSIS
A The First Analysis about the Main Error
in Using the Word “ if ’ 5 6
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of The Problem
Human being always needs company in his life since he has to live in a
community. As the member o f a community, he also needs means o f
communication, which is called language. With the language, he can express his
ideas and wishes to other people. Although human beings process and speak
language, unfortunately, it has not been particularly easy for them to say what it
is. There are many definitions o f language given by some linguists. John B.
Carrol, as quoted by Ramelan defined language a s ....
An arbitrary system of speech sounds sequences of speech sounds which is used or can be used interpersonal communication by an aggregation o f human beings, and which rather exhaustively catalogs things, processes, events in human environment.'
Other linguist, Wardhough, defined language as a system o f arbitrary,
vocal symbols used for human communication.* 2 From the definitions above, the
writer can make conclusion that language is a system o f arbitrary, vocal symbols
by which human beings communicate or interact with one another in a certain
community.
'RamelanIntroduction to Linguistic Analysis. Semarang, IKIP Semarang Press, 1992, page 10.
Moulton quoted by Ramelan says that the ability to speak language in
human being is not genetically transmitted but it is culturally learned from
their elders.3 A child w ill not automatically speak language just because he is
human being, but because he learns it from his parents or people around him. This
is why there is no universal language spoken by all human beings in the world,
since it is culturally determined that it depends on die community in which the
child brought up.
Frank classifies that English words in two big groups from classes and
structural groups. Form classes, it consists o f nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs. In this paper the w riter intends to discuss die pronouns. Frank says
that the traditional definitions o f a pronoun as a w ord that take the place o f noun.4
It is applicable to the same type o f noun not the others. Later she says that modern
grammarians who regards position and function as the decisive factors and
classifying parts o f speech often consider pronoun as subclass noun.
One o f the types o f pronoun is personal pronouns which refers to:
1. The Speaker, called the first person.
2. The person spoken to, called the second person (you).
Ramelan, op.ctf,. page 15.
3. The person o f thing being spoken o f called the third person (He, She, It,
They).5
When
it
refers to the part o f personal pronoun, this w ord applies to the subject orobject position. For example: it is a cat. It is a pencil. In the examples above,
it
fills the Subject position and refers to an animal (a cat), and a thing (a pencil).
It
can be used in the object position, for examples she bought a book. Her brother
didn’t like it. In this example, it fills the object position, and refers to book.
Sometimes,
it
is a kind o f expletive. In this case, this w ord does not reallyrefer to anything at all. It just fills a position in the sentence pattern.6 7 As an
expletive, it is usually accompanied by a singular form o f a linking verb, be. It has
special meaning o f identification, weather, time, and distance/ For examples:
1. Identification
Who is it? - It is Mary.
What is this? - It is a lawn mower.
2. Weather.
It is cold outside.
With verbs signifying weather. It was raining (or snowing, hailing, storming)
yesterday.
5
bid,
page 213.
TimeIt is Wednesday.
It is January 25.
It is ten o'clock.
4. Distance
It is five miles from the library to my house (In terms o f space).
It is five minutes to w alk to my house.
B. Reason For Choosing The Topic
Indonesian students often make errors in using the w ord it When they use it in
sentences, Barry Taylor, as cited by Little wood, says that the beginner has less
previous second language knowledge to draw on in making hypothesis about
rules and there for might be expected to make correspondingly more use o f his
first language knowledge.3
According to this statement, the w riter assumes that error made by
learners in using the word
it
are caused by there less knowledge aboutit
and theyhave never formed Indonesian sentences using this pattern. The expression like
what time is it? It is six o'clock, w ill be translated in Indonesia as an utterance,
“Jam berapa sekarang?” Jam enam”. 8
In English sentences,
it
has never been translated into Indonesian as acertain word, which has special meaning.
The topic o f this paper primarily deals with an error analysis in using the
word it, made by the first year students o f MAN I Salatiga in the Academic year
o f 2001/2002. The reasons for choosing this topic are as follows:
1. An analysis o f the learners’ errors gives teachers evidence o f his competence
in the foreign language. We also gain valuable information important for
planning courses and constructing teaching materials.
2. The w ord it does not occur in Indonesian language and it is never translated
in certain word, which has special meaning. Though it is considered simple
and easy, many students still cannot use it correctly.
3. The choosing o f the first year students o f MAN I Salatiga in the Academic
year o f 2001/2002 as the subject o f this research is based on the consideration
that the students had got sufficient basic knowledge about it, since they were
at Junior High School.
Because o f these considerations above, the w riter is interested in
research about: AN ERROR ANALYSIS OF USING THE WORD “I T ’ (A
case o f the first year students o f MAN I Salatiga in the Academic Y ear o f
C. The Identification of The Problems
To make easy and understanding the topic, this w ill be better, if the w riter
gives identification about the problems as follows:
v
1. There are many errors in using the w ord “ if ’ made by the first year students o f
MAN I Salatiga in the Academic Year 2001/2002.
2. There are many possible causes o f the enrdrs.
3. There are many possible ways out o f preventing those errors.
D. The Limitation of The Problems
This thesis deals with analyzing errors in using the w ord “ i f ’, made by the
first year students o f MAN I Salatiga, so the w riter wants to know about:
1. The main errors in using the w ord “ i f ’, especially errors caused by
Interlingual and intralingual errors.
2. The possible causes those errors.
3. The possible ways out o f preventing o f those errors.
t
E, The Statement of The Problems
The problems posed in this thesis are as follows:
1. What are the main errors in using the w ord “ i f ’ made by the first year students
o f MAN 1 Salatiga in the academic year 2001/2002?
3. What are the possible ways out o f preventing those errors?
F. The Objectives of The Problem
The w riter conducts this study to find out:
1. The main errors in using the word “ it” made by the first year students o f
MAN I Salatiga the Academic year o f 2001 / 2002.
2. The possible causes o f those errors.
3. The ways out o f preventing those errors.
G. The Benefits of The Problems
1. This research can be used to change the errors o f using the word “ if ’.
2. This research can develop and enrich the knowledge o f using the w ord “ it”.
3. This research can be guidance for teachers and students,
a For English teachers are as follows:
1. To improve the teaching method for the English teaching and learning
process.
2. To help the teachers to minimize errors in using the word “ if ’,
b. For students:
1. To know how far the goal has been achieved and consequently what
remains for them to learn and what remedial teaching for them to cany'
2. To anticipate the error the students make when they are in the first
year, so that the same error can be avoided in the second and also in
the third year classes.
H. The literature Review.
Brown noted that a mistake refers to a failure in linguistic performance to
utilize a known system correctly. He further says that such lapses or mistakes are
pnot the result o f some sort o f breakdown or imperfection in the process o f
producing speech. When committing mistakes the speaker normally capable o f
recognizing and correcting them.9
In Browns’ opinions, however the term ‘error’ refers to noticeable
deviation, from the adult grammar o f a native speaker, which reflects the
Interlanguage competence o f the learner.10 Errors are caused by lack o f
knowledge about the target language or by incorrect hypothesis about it. The
making o f error is a sign that the students have not yet mastered the rules o f the
language being learned. To cope with this problem, one o f the strategies widely
used by linguists error analysis. Brown stated that error analysis is the study o f
student’s error, which can be observed, analysis and classified to reveal
something of the system operating within the learners. Brown point a view
9 Brown, H.Douglass. Principle o f Language Learning and teaching. New Jersey: Prenctice hall, Inc, 17&Q, page 165.
informs that error analysis is useful for the teachers. Error analysis w ill show
teachers some problems confronting the students.11
Frank says that traditional definitions o f a pronoun as a w ord that takes the
place o f noua It is applicable to the same type o f noun not the others. Later, she
said that modern Grammarians regard position and function as the decisive factor
in classifying parts o f speech often consider pronoun as a sub class o f noun.* 12 To
limit this discussion, the w riter intend to explain the use o f it as personal pronoun,
identification to state weather, time, distance as anticipatory, that does not mean
anything with linking verbs except be.
I. Methodology of Research
To write this paper, the writer w ill do two activities namely library
activity, and field one. The w riter uses the research procedures to obtain
empirical data required to profit materials for analysis as follows:
1. Subject of The Research a. Population
Population is the whole o f research subject.13 The population o f this
research are all o f the first students o f MAN I Salatiga in the academic year
o f 2001 / 2002.
n Ibid, page 166.
12 Frank, Marcella. op.cit.r page 20.
This is the calculation o f the data collected. The data are calculated to find
out the proportion o f error made by each subject, and to find out the
proportion o f frequency error in each type as w ell as the dominant errors
occurred. The percentage o f errors is found by taking the percentage
descriptive analysis as follows:
b. Statistical analysis
EE
X = --- x 100%
ET
Where X = the percentage o f errors
E = various kind o f errors
T = Test items
£ = The sum o f
The proportion o f frequency o f errors is calculated by using the pre selected
category approach formula as follow:
Formula 1
f i
Pi = --- x 100%
N
Where Pi = the proportion o f frequency o f occurrence
Fi = Absolute frequency o f a partial type o f error
Formula 2
P I=
FI
_ xl00%
N
Where PI = the proportion o f frequency o f occurrence o f errors
FI = Absolute frequency o f all types o f errors
N = the total number o f possible errors observed
The last is to find out the dominant errors occurred. Any error whose (pi -
PI) is plus (+) is considered dominant In the other hand, i f the (pi - PI) is zero or
minus (-), it is said to be less dominant With these formula, the percentage o f
errors as w ell as the dominant errors namely the types o f errors which most /
J. The Organization of the Problem
The organization o f the problem is as follows:
Chapter I
presents the introduction which contains the background o f the %problems, reasons for choosing the topic, identification o f the problem,
the limitation o f die problem, the statement o f the problem, the
objectives o f the problem, the benefits o f the problem, literature
review, the methodology o f research, the organization o f the problem.
Chapter
II deals with the review o f related literature, which presents thedifference between errors and mistakes, errors analysis, the sources o f
errors, and the use o f “ i f ’ in English sentence.
Chapter
I II presents research report and data presentation, which deals thehistory o f MAN I Salatiga, the general o f MAN I Salatiga in the
academic year o f 2001 / 2002, the situation o f teachers and staffs, data
presentation.
Chapter
I V presents data analysis, which discusses the first analysis about themain errors in using the word ”i f , the second analysis about the
possible causes o f the errors, the third analysis about the possible ways
out o f preventing those errors.
Chapter
V is the last chapter. It presents closure, which deals conclusions andCHAPTER H
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Mistakes and Errors
We are accustomed to defining errors and mistakes are either synonymous
or identical words. But they are actually different in learning and teaching
process. It would be, therefore, useful for the w riter to distinguish them.
Brown notes that a mistake refers to a failure in linguistic performance to
utilize a known system correctly. He further says that such lapses or mistakes are
not result o f a deficiency in competence, but the result o f some sort o f breakdown
or imperfection in the process o f producing speech. When committing mistakes,
the speaker is normally capable o f recognizing and correcting them.1
In Brown’s opinion, however, the term “ error” refers to a noticeable
deviation from the adult grammar o f the native speaker which reflect the inter
language competence o f the learner.1 2 Errors caused by lack o f knowledge about
the target language or by incorrect hypothesis about it.
1 Brown, H. Douglass. Principle o f la-'.gunge learning and teaching. New J e rs e y : Prentice Hall, Inc, 1980, page 165.
In learning and using a foreign language, one o f the most inhibiting
factors is the fear o f making mistakes or errors.
The making o f enrors is a sign that students have not yet mastered the rule
o f language being learned. To cope with this problem, one o f the strategies
widely used by linguists are
Error Analysis.
Brown states that error analysis isthe study o f the student’s error, which can be observed, analyzed and classified to
reveal something o f the system oper ating within the learners. B row n’s point o f
view informs that error analysis is useful for the teacher. Error analysis w ill show
teachers some problems confronting the students/’
Johansson stated that an analysis o f the learner’s errors gives the teacher
evidence o f the learner’s competence in the foreign language. The teacher will
also gain information concerning learner’s difficulties at different levels. Such
information is important for the planning o f courses and constructions o f the
teaching materials.3 4
By conducting error analysis, the teacher w ill be able to investigate the
communicative strategies. It means that he w ill be able to examine the language
the learner uses. This can take the forms o f avoiding certain structure or
vocabulary items, generally those which learners feel uncertain about.
B. Errors Analysis
3 Brown, H Douglas Op.ci.t, page 166.
In addition, die errors occurring within he process o f learning may show
teacher areas where his teaching has not been affective yet. By conducting a
systematic study o f error, he may improve his teaching methods. He may attempt
to find some answers or solutions to solve some problems faced by his students.
Corder, as Richards quoted, stated the significance o f learner’s errors:
A learner’s erro rs... are significant in three different ways. First to the learner uses in order to learn.5
By using the result o f the errors analysis findings, the teacher w ill be able to
know how far the goal has been achieved and consequently, what remains for
them to learn and what remedial teaching for them to carry out.
In line with Corder’s opinion, Etherton states that error analysis is based on
adequate data as shown below:
1. Common weakness with which sentences needs helps: either through teaching or by introducing o f new material.
2. Words, structures or verbs inform which prove to be too difficult, as a particular stage and which should be differed.
3. Inadequacies in an official syllabus stipulated by the government: too much material, a faulty sequence o f units, or the omission o f the essential material.
4. Weakness or errors, which may be entirely new to the teacher. In this area the task o f making an error analysis can be the most rewarding seeing that the analysis may reveal problems which are unknown to some textbook writers but which ought to be dealt with in class. They consequently do not provide any suitable solutions for such problems.0
It is obvious that an error analysis can provide valuable data for the preparation
o f the teaching materials, textbooks, and test or examinations.
C. The Causes or Sources of Errors
Errors as stated by Brown arise from several possible general causes or sources:
interlingual errors o f the interference from the native language, the socio
linguistic context o f communication, psycho linguistic or cognitive strategies, and
no doubt countless affective variables. To limit the discussion, the w riter would
only like discussing errors caused by interlingual and intralingual errors.
1. Interlingual errors
It is understood that interlingual errors are those, which are caused by the
interference o f the native language.5 They have something to do with
Constructive Analysis hypothesis as pointed out by Brown:
This hypothesis claimed that principal barrier to second language acquisition is the interference o f the first language system with the second language system, and that scientific, structural analysis o f the
two languages.. .yield a taxonomy o f linguistic contrast between them * 7 8
° Ethertcn, A R. B, Error Analysis : Problems and Procedure. ELT Journal Vol. XXXI. page 67-63.
7 Brown, H.Douglass, op.city age 166.
which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter.9
It is clear that constructive Analysis aims at describing the differences and
similarities o f languages with a view o f predicting the possible learning
problems. Elements o f target language that are similar to the native language
may be simple for the learner and those fiat are different may be difficult.
Predicting errors using constructive Analysis can be carried out in term o f
hierarchy o f difficulty. Therefore, a teacher or linguist can make a prediction
o f the relative difficulty o f a given aspect o f the second language.
Clifford, as edited by Brown categorizes the essence o f the
grammatical hierarchy in six categories.10 The categories, in ascending order
o f difficulty, are as follows:
a. Level 0— transfer
There is no difference or contrast between two languages. Here, students
can easily transfer (positively) linguistic items from the native language to
the target language. Such transfer is posited to be o f difficulty. Hence the
cable is level zero.
Examples: A lot o f w ater
{banyak air).
Much money
{banyak uang).
b. Level 1— Coalescence
Two or more items in the native language become coalesced into
essentially on item in the target language.
The first person singular 7 ’has some counter parts in Bahasa Indonesia
such as
says, beta, aku dan hamba.
However, those differences hardlycause any problems for Indonesian learning English as a foreign language,
nor do they facilitate learning process,
c. Level 2— Under Differentiation
Two different items in the target language may sometimes be considered
the same, due to such lack o f differentiation in the native language. The
differentiation has grammatical consequences; and therefore, students often
fail to use or supply the required structural items ’many’ and ‘much’ are
considered the same, due to such lack o f differentiation in Bahasa
Indonesia, which is
'banyak'
for either forms. For example, the sentencethere is many water
instead o fthere is much water.
Brown pointed out that under differentiation might also refer to items in
the native language which were absent in the target language. Therefore,
Examples: The boy entered into the room.
Students discussed about their holidays.”
In this case, students often supply the unnecessary' structural items due to
the influence o f their mother tongue.
d. Level 3— Reinterpretation
An item existing in the native language is given a n e w shape distribution in
the target language. English active, construction, such as It happens may be
interpreted as passive construction, resulting the fact that those verbs are
semantically passive in Bahasa Indonesia
e. Level 4 - Over divergence
An entirely new item bearing a little, if any, similarity to the native
language must be learned.1' It may have something to do with forms and
meanings. For example, students often use ‘bidder’ in replacing ‘w orse’
which means ‘lebih buruk’ in Bahasa Indonesia
£ Level 5-Split
On item in the native language become two or more items in the target
language, requiring students to a new distinction. Verb inflections in
English may cause some problems. An Indonesian verb ‘belajar’ has no
inflections namely ’studies’, studied’ and ‘studying’. It may result in errors
such as ‘He study’. 11 12
2. Intralingual errors
Intraiingual errors are also called developmental errors. Richards
writes that an intralingual interference refers to items produced by learners,
which reflect Not the structure o f the mother tongue, but generalization based
on partial exposure o f the target language. Thus, intralingual errors are the
direct result o f the learner’s attempt to create language system he is learning.
Richards classifies the intra lingual errors into four categories, namely
(1) over generalization, (2) Ignorance o f rule restrictions, (3) incomplete
application o f the rules, and (4) false concept hypothesized or semantic
errors.13 N ow we take a closer look to the four categories,
a. Over generalization
Richard says that this group o f errors is the result o f the use o f previously
available strategies in new situations. In other words, it occurs when a
learner creates a deviant structure on the basis o f his experience o f other
structure in the target language. Furthermore, Richard points out that over
generalization is associated with redundancy reduction. It may occur, for
instance, with items which are contrasted in the grammar o f the language
but do not carry significant and obvious contrast for the learner.
The - ed marker, in narrative or in other past contexts, often appears to
carry no meaning since past ness is usually indicated lexically in stories,
and the essential notion o f sequence in narrative can be expressed equally
w ell in the present—yesterday,
I go to the University and I meet my new
professor.14
b. Ignorance o f the Rule Restriction
In this type of error, the learner fails to observe the restriction o f existing
structure. Some rule restriction errors may be accounted for in terms o f
analogy and
may
result from the rote learning rules. A learner, forexample, may use ‘to infinitive’ after verb like ‘tell’ in
‘Tell him to return
the book
' or ‘ask’ in‘1 ask you to go there’.
He, then, produces anutterance
'1 make him to do it
'. In this sentence, the learner ignores the rulerestrictions of the verb ‘make’.ei the verb ‘make’ is always follow ed by
infinitive without to ’. The learner mostly tends to generalize syntactic rules
he has previously learned, ignoring the new rule.
c. Incomplete Application o f the Rules
Intralingual error o f this type may occur when the learner fails to apply the
rules completely due to the stimulus sentences.
It shows an utterance o f structures whose deviancy represents the degree o f
development o f the rules required to produce acceptable utterances,
d. False Concept Hypotized
This -- sometimes called semantic error -- may be derived from the faulty
comprehension o f distinctions in the target langage. The learner fails to use
the correct concepts. These errors are sometimes due to the poor gradation
o f teaching items. The form *itV may be interpreted as ‘its’ such as
‘in Its
pleasant in the garden
' instead o fIt ’s pleasant in the garden
C*
D. The Use of ”it” in English Sentence
1. The Use o f
It
as personal PronounEnglish words can be classified as nouns pronouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs. The w riter intends to discuss the pronoun. Frank says that the
traditional definition o f a pronoun is w ord that takes place o f noun. It is
applicable to the same type o f noun not tire others. Later, she says that
modern grammarians who regard position and function as the decisive factors
in classifying parts o f speech often consider pronoun as a subclass o f noun.lj 15
Frank divided pronouns into several parts. Those are:
1. Personal Pronouns 4. Reflective Pronouns
2. Relative Pronouns 5. Reciprocal Pronouns
3. Demonstrative Pronouns 6. Indefinite Pronouns.16
He explains to pronouns only. Personal pronouns consist o f certain parts,
which can be seen below:
a Subjective or Normative case
It refers to pronouns that function as subjective case in a sentence. The
subjective cases o f the pronouns are:
1) . I as first person
I wish to go abroad next month.
2) . We as first person plural (the speaker).
We find much trouble in studying English.
3) . You as second person singular and plural (the person spoken to)
You show them the way to the station.
4 ) . He, she, and it as the third person singular (the person or thing being
spoken).
He goes to school on foot.
16
She drinks milk every morning
It takes a long time to study English.
5). They as the third person plural (The person or thing being spoken
of). They play tennis very well.
b. Objective or Accusative Case
It refers to a pronoun that function as an objective case in a sentence.
The objective cases o f the pronouns are:
me, us, you, him, her, it,
andthem.
Examples:
1) . My father gives me money every month.
2) . Those books belong to us.
3) . I can visit you next month.
4 ) . I w ill ask him to study English
5) . D iah’s aunt often invites her to go to market
6) . He wants to take it to cut with.
7) . We w ill call them after playing.
c. Possessive or genitive Case
In a sentence, it shows the possession. Those are
my / mine
,our/ours,
17
your/your, his/his, her/hers, their/theirs.
Examples:
1) . D on’t use
mine.
2) . Do you know
our
?3) . Please take
yours,
and then show it to me4) . The red car look like
his.
5) . I want to borrow
hers
to study.6) . Our culture is different from
theirs.
From the explanation above, we know that the word
it
belongs o thepart o f personal pronoun, either the subjective or objective case.
Examples:
I have a new pen. It is red.
It is a door.
It is a dog.
In the examples above,
it
fills the subject position or subjective case andrefers to the thing '
a pen ’
and'a door,
and the animal‘a dog ’. It
canalso fill the objective position in a sentence.
Examples:
Diah bought a n ew novel. Her sister didn’t like it.
In both sentences,
it
refers to a thing. In the first sentenceit
refers to‘novel’, while in the second sentence,
it
refers to bycicle.2. The Use o f
It
As An ExpletiveAlthough expletives are classified as pronouns, in most dictionaries and
conservative grammar books, they actually differ somewhat from other
pronouns. Expletives have less semantic content than other pronouns. Frank says
that their chief function is either to provide a sentence with a formal subject or to
anticipate a subject that appears in the predicate. She, further, explained that
because expletives are used merely for a grammatical purpose, modem,
grammarians often classify them into the structure words that do not belong to
any part o f speech.
There are two kinds o f expletive in English. They are expletive
it
andexpletive
there.
In this part, the w riter discuses the expletiveit.
A singular formo f a linking verb, usually be, is used with the expletive
it.
a. Impersonal
It.
Based on function as expletives,
it
often stands with a predicate nounplus an adverbial.
It
can be called a predicative adjective o f a sentence whenthe predicate is followed by an adjective. The predicative noun means that
after a predicate, a noun follows it. It is called impersonal
it.
Examples:
2) . It is pleasant in the garden.
3) . It would be wide if you went there now.
4) . It is more fim when we all go together.
In English sentences, it mostly functions as impersonal
it,
which revealsdifferent meanings, such as:
a) . Identification
It
can be used in a sentence to give identification.Examples:
Who is it? It is a new student.
What is it? It is a pen.
b) . Weather
It
can be used to express weather. When there is a question, such as, what
is the weather like?
the answer is not only ‘raining’ or ‘nothing’ at all.Therefore, the right answer o f a question about weather can be as follows:
It is cold outside.
It is raining (or snowing, hailing).
c) . Time
It
can be used in a sentence to state time.Examples:
What time is it? It is five o ’clock.
It is Friday.
It was November 3,1973.
d). Distance
There are two kinds o f distance. The first one is a distance, which is
connected with time and second one refers to space.
Examples:
1) . It is 110 km from Pekalongan to Semarang.
It is about five miles to library
2) . In term o f time
It is ten minute walking to the theatre.
It is an hour going to Simpang Lima.
In a special kind o f construction, impersonal
it
co-occurs with a clause thatmodifies a subjective complement. This construction permits greater
emphasis on the complement than does the alternate construction without
it.
1) . Noun or pronoun complement
It is not I who I am to blame (or I am not to blame).
It was some poet who said we live in an age anxiety (or some poet
said....).
2) . Adverb complement
(Or he died four years ago).
It was there that I met him.
(Or I met him there).18
Apart from linking verb be, it is also often followed by other linking verbs,
such as:
- Appear: Can you tell me who is out?
It appears to be small girl.
- Seem: It seems to be hot here.
- Get: It gets very cold here in the winter
- Become: It becomes very cold here in the winter.19
- Sound: It sounds easy to do.
- Look: It looks terrible.20
b. Anticipatory
it
The other function o f it is as an anticipatoiy. In this case, it merely fills the
subject position o f a sentence. Frank and Walker said that the actual subject is
a noun structure in the predicate, an infinitive or that clause.
Examples:
1). It is difficult to understand the announcement
18 Frank, Marcella.op.crf.page 36. 19 ibid, page 37.
2) . It is true that the plane is late.
3) . It is important (or you) to be there on time.
4) . It is unbelievable what doctors can do these days.
5) . It astonishes the amount o f work he can do in one day.
The noun structures, infinitive or those clauses in the predicate after anticipatory
it may also appear in their regular subject position.
Examples:
1) . (For you) to be there on time is important.
2) . What doctors can do these days is unbelievable.
3) . The amount o f work he can do in one day is astonishing.
4 ) . That plane is late is true.
Anticipatory
it
also occurs with passive verbs o f believing or communicating,such verbs are followed by the clauses, which are the actual subjects.
Examples:
1) . It is suggested that you be there on time.
2) . It was believed that he had committed suicide.
3) . It is rumored that secret peace talks have already begun.
The
clauses
with such passive verbs only occasionally appear in subjectposition. For example:
That there had been foul play
was believed by manyanticipatory
it
are in apposition withit.
The apposition here is considered to beo f the same nature as the apposition with
it
used as objective o f a verb.Examples:
1) . Apposition with
it
as subjecta It is hard to do all these works.
b. It is possible that they may arrive next week.
2) . Apposition with
it
as objecta I find it hard to do all these works.
b. We think
it
possible that they may arrive next week.CHAPTER m
Research Report and Data Presentation
A. The History o f MAN I Salatiga
MAN I Salatiga is a state islamic educational college, which teaches exact,
social, and religion sciences. As an educational college it has the same level as
Senior High School, which teaches at least 30 % in its curriculum. It was
overtaken from PGAN Salatiga by Government’s policy no: 64 April 25th 1990.
Since it was overtaken, PGAN developes progressively by under control o f
the first Principal o f M adrasah Djumadi, BA, in the years 1990 until 1995. It
developes some program e.i. Islamic Science (A l), Physics (A2), Biology (A3),
and Social sciences (A4). In the 1996 Mr. H. Qowa’id took the principal hold, n
the year 1997 the alteration o f national curriculum took place, that influences all
study programs into Natural Sciences and Social sciences programs only. uUder
control by Mr. Qowa’id’s MAN I Salatiga added its facilities by establishing new
classes. In the year 1999 Drs. Qowa’id was mutated, and the position was
overtaken hold by Drs. Hadis until now. 1
MAN I Salatiga is located on K.H W ahid Hasyim no. 12 in North Sidorejo
District in Sidorejo sub district in Salatiga. It settles the ground as wide as
51 13m2. There are borders lines o f MAN I Salatiga as follows:
At the South side is restricted by settlement
At The West side is restricted by settlement
At the North side is restricted by Kauman Street
At the East side is restricted by KH. W ahid Hasyim Street
B. The General Situation o f MAN I Salatiga in the Academic Years of 2001/2002
1. The situation o f Mediums and Instruments
MAN I Salatiga occupies the land wide 5 1 13m2, with the details are as follows:
Class buildings and office are as wide as 2351,6 m2
Other buildings are as wide as 4454,4 m 2
Sport yard is as wide as 1500 m 2
The free area is as wide as 816 m2
The available mediums and Instruments are as follows:
1. Class room : 23 rooms
2. Principal room : 1 room
3. Teachers room : 1 room
4. Library room : 1 room
6. OSIS room : 1 room
7. Administration room : 1 room
8. Counseling room : 1 room
9. Store house : 1 room
10. Cafeteria : 1 room
11. Little mosque : 1 room
12. Security guard : 1 room
13. Computer Laboratories : 1 room
14. Physic Laboratories ; 1 room
15. Biology / Chemistry Laboratories : 1 room
16. Holy water place : 2 rooms
17. Principal toilet : 1 room
18. Teachers toilet : 1 room
19. Students toilet : 5 rooms
Besides that, MAN I Salatiga also has complement devices for the
laboratory; among others are the devices for Natural Sciences (Biology, Physic,
and Chemistry), and other facilities like tables, chairs, television, telephone, and
sports complements. For underpinning teaching and learning process MAN I
Salatiga is also completed with library, which supplies lesson books, general
By those mediums and instruments, M AN I Salatiga undertakes its
function as an educational institute as a level as General high School, it teaches
m odem science and religious subjects. Besides teaching them formally, MAN I
Salatiga also runs extracurricular activities to develop students’ interest and
talents, also plans them relationship attitude between one to another and train
them to run organization. Besides extracurricular activities, there is devotion
one, which asks them to put Islam in practice. The activities are as follows:
1. Action o f Devotion Activity
a. Praying Dzhuhur together
b. Reciting the Holy Koran
2. Extracurricular activities
a. Reciting Islam ’ s teaching
b. Scout Activities
c. Red Cross Students
d. Wall magazines
e. Students’ Scientific Work (SSW)
f. Computer
g. Badminton
C. The Situation o f Teachers and staffs
2. Drs. Muhammad Kholis Teacher Koran & hadists
3. Mahmudi, BA. Teacher / Vice Headmaster o f
Mediums & M easurements
Department
The National and
W orld History
4. Drs. Ishak Teacher / Home-room teacher
o f m IPA-2
6. Drs. Eko Supamo Teacher Pancasila &
citizenship
7. Drs. S undo wo Teacher / Social relationship
Department
M athematic
8. Dra. Nur Nazilah Teacher / Home-room teacher
o f 1-2
The Education o f
Pancasila &
Matters
1 2 3 4
9. Rodji’un, BA Teacher / Treasurer The National &
W orld History
10. Drs. Nasuha Teacher / Home-room teacher
o f 1-4
12. Drs. Hadi Mulyanto Teacher / Vice Headmaster o f
Curriculum Department
Chemistry
13. Drs. Mahsum Alwaid Teacher / Vice Principal o f
Students field / Achievement
Guidance
Fiqh & SK I
14. Dra. Nurul Isnaeni Teacher / Home-room teacher
o f 1-5
17. Dra. M u’tasimah Teacher / Home-room teacher
1 2 3 4
Dra. Hartatik SW Coordinator Counseling
Guidance & BK
23. Drs. Kastomo Teacher /The field o f OSIS
Guidance / Home-room
teacher o f H-8
Mathematic &
CG
24. Dra. Sri Avianita Teacher / Home-room o f H-5 Indonesia
Language
25. Dr&Umi Haminah Teacher / Home-room teacher
ofn -1
The Education o f
Pancasila &
matters pertaining
to the state, CG
26. Joko Susiio, S.Pd Teacher / Provisioning &
Choosing mediums &
Instruments.
Biology, CG
1 2 3 4
28. Siti Mahmudah Teacher / Home- room
Teacher o f 1-3
30. Agus Junaedi, SPd. Teacher / Home-room teacher
ofH-6
Biology, CG
31. Siti Robitoh, S. Pd Teacher / Home-room
teacher o f II-3
Mathematic, CG
32. D ra Tri Jaliyah Teacher / Home-room o f HI
IPS-1
Mathematic
33. Dra. Ngamilah Teacher / Home-room teacher
ofI-7
Aqidah, Koran
hadists, and CG
34. M. Khozin, BA Teacher / Home-room teacher
ofR-2
English
Language, CG
35. Dra. Fatonah Teacher Home-room teacher
o f CUPS - 2
Sociology
36. Munawir, S.Ag Teacher Arabic Language
37. Misbahul Munir. S.Ag Teacher / Home-room teacher
ofD-7
Arabic Language,
CG
38. Sri Kundari Teacher Indonesia/?
1 2 3 4
39. Dewi Wardah, S.Pd Teacher Indonesia j'?
Language
40. S. Ariyah, S.Pd Teacher Indonesia
Language
41. Soffatinajah, S.Pd Teacher Physic
42. D ra Sri Winarsih Teacher Chemistry
43. Dwi Nurhidayat Teacher / The field o f Scout
& PKS Guidance
47. Istianah, S.Pd Teacher / Home-room teacher
offi-4
Economy &
Accounting
48. Ulfi Khoirotun, S.Pd Teacher / Home-room teacher
ofI-6
Economy &
Accounting
49. Tri Hartut, S.Pd Teacher Geography
50. Dyah Nuhraheni, S.Pd Teacher / Home-room teacher
59. Muhammad Sofyan D river
60. Muhammad Kharis Office man
61. Mrih Wikamto Security guard
62. Budi Waluyo Gardener
D. Data Presentation
1. The Data about main errors in using the word “it” made by the first year students of MAN I Salatiga in the Academic Year of 2001/2002.
In processing the data obtained from the result o f the test, the w riter did
two steps. First, the writer found the percentage o f errors made by students
using a percentage descriptive analysis. Second, the w riter found the dominant
errors by using reselected category approach favored by Etherton as adopted by
Norrish , in which the statistical computation, w ill be analyzed by the w riter on
Chapter IV.
Table H
Data of The main errors in using the word “it” made by the first year students of MAN I Salatiga in the Academic Year 2001 / 2002 as below:
No. Name of The Number of Errors The Sum
Respondent (Based on the Number of Questions) of Errors
1 2 3 4
1. A rif Asnawi 5,8,12,19,20,22,27,29 9
2. Aris Suyalmi 5,8,9,10,12,18,20,25,26 10
3. Asriatun
Q ori’ah
Q ori’ah
7. E k o R in iF 3,5,7,9,11,12,13,15,18,19,20,21,25,26,29 15
8. Eko Sugiarto 5,7,8,9,10,11,12,17,19,20,24,25,26,28,29 15
20. M. Abdul H 5,8,12,19,20,22,26,29 9
37. Vadchurrochi 3,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14,15,18,19,20,23,2 17
m Ixvianti 6,28
38. Widi Tri R 3,5,8,9,12,20,22,23,26,28,29 12
39. Yuslam A. 1,3,5,7,8,9,12,14,15,18,19,20,21,22,26,2
9
16
40.. Zainal M 5,8,11,12,14,19,20,22,27 9
2. The Data about Reliability of The Test
Reliability o f the test shows the stability o f the test scores when the test is
used. Harris says that to have confidence in measuring instrument, the
researcher needs to make sure the reliability o f the scoring o f the test. 2 To
measure the reliability o f the test, the writer uses the procedure o f Pearson-
Product Moment Correlation as follows:
1). Administer the test and give the result o f each student’s test paper a
score.
2). Divide the test into halves, and record scores made by each students
on each half. It is usually safe to take odd items as one h alf o f the test
and even items test as the other half. Then list the pair o f scores in
two columns. Label the column to the left (X), and the column to the
right (Y). Each score under X has corresponding scores under Y for
the same students.
3) . Calculate the following statistic:
a) . The sum o f X scores
b) . The sum o f Y scores
c) . The sum o f the square o f X scores
d) . The sum o f the square o f Y scores
e) . The sum o f product o f each X scores, with its corresponding Y
scores for the same students.
This data are needed in order to compute the correlation between the
X and Y scores by means o f the Pearson formula presented in step 4.
4) . Apply the following formula:
rX Y =
(LX)
(XY)
XXY---N
(L Y )2
{ 2 Y 2 ---} N
Where rXY = The correlation o f the score on two halves o f the
test.
N = the number o f respondents
XX = the number o f respondents
XY = th e sum o f X scores
XX2 = the sum o f the square o f X scores
E X Y = the sum o f the result o f X and Y scores eash
students.
5) . Compute rXY and the result is the obtained reliability o f half o f the
test.
6) . Use the Spearman-Brown formula to estimate the reliability o f the
entire test. The formula is as follows:
2 . rXY r l l =
---1 + rXY
where r l l = the obtained reliability coefficient o f entire test.
rXY= The obtained reliability coefficient o f h alf test3.
The following the six steps above, the writer made table i n to facilitate the
computation below:
Table m
Preparatory Table For Value
No. X Y X2 XY
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. 7 7 49 49 49
2. 6 7 36 29 42
3. 7 8 49 64 42
4. 7 5 49 64 56
5. 7 8 49 64 56
32. 6 4 36 16 24
1 2 3 4 5 6
33. 5 6 25 36 30
34. 3 3 9 9 9
35. 5 3 25 9 15
36. 3 5 9 25 15
37. 5 4 25 16 20
38. 5 7 25 49 35
39. 5 4 25 16 20
40. 7 7 49 49 49
T otal 210 210 1176 1220 1170
Based on the table above, the result o f the computation are as follows:
1. The score o f odd number items:
EX = 2 1 0
EX 2 = 1 1 7 6
2. The Score o f even number items:
I Y
= 2 1 0E Y 2 = 1220
EX Y = 1 1 7 0
N = 3 9
B y applying th e form ula on th e
com putation below:
r X T = ZXY
(I X ) (L Y )
rXY =
rXY=
\
\
\
N
{ZX2- (ZX)2} { S Y 2- ( I Y ) 2}
N N
(
210
) (210
) EX Y----39
{1176 -(2 1 0 r} { 1 2 2 0 -(2 1 0 n
39 39
\
1 1 7 0 - 1130,77
(1176 - (1130,77) (1220-1130,77)
__________ 39,23
i
V
(42,23) (82,23)39,23 58,928
0,66572
Because the results are obtained from an odd even number, the results
must be computed again by using the formula in step 6 to determine the
reliability o f the entire test The computation is like this:
r n = 2. rXY
1+rX Y
= 2.0,666
1
+
0,666
= 1.332
1,666
= 0,7995
= 0,80
After the w riter gets the reliability coefficient o f the entire test, the writer
consults the table o f correlation. The table confirms that the critical value o f
r product-moment, with 95% o f confidence level and the number o f the
subject o f 40, is 0,312. Since the reliability coefficient o f the try out test,
0,80 higher than that o f the table, the test is reliable.
3. The Data about the Sum of the Number of Errors per Item
4. The data about eight levels o f errors
a. Errors in the use o f “it” as personal pronoun
( Item number 9,13,15 and 21) = 6 3 errors
b. Errors in the use o f “it” as identification
(Item number 2 and 16) = 3 errors
c. Errors in the use o f “it” to state weather
(Item number 3,14 and 27) = 5 7 errors
d. Errors in the use o f “it” to state time
(Item number 4,5,24 and 26) = 78 errors
e. Errors in the use o f “it” to state distance
(Item number 6,10,29) = 52 errors
f. Errors in the use o f “it” as anticipate
(Item number 7,11,17,20,28 and 30) = 1 1 2 errors
g. Errors in the use o f “it” that does not mean anything
(Item number 1,18,23 and 25) = 64 errors
h. Errors in the use o f “it” with other linking verbs except be
C H A P T E R I V
D A T A A N A L Y S I S
After obtaining the data the writer w ill analyze the data to answer die questions about:
1. What are the main errors in using the word “it” made by the first year students o f MAN I Salatiga in the Academic year 2001 / 2002?
2. What are die possible causes o f die errors?
3. What are the possible ways out o f preventing those errors? The statement o f the problems above w ill be analyzed as follows:
A. The First Analysis about The Main Errors in using The Word ”it”
It is made by die first year students o f MAN I Salatiga in the academic year o f 2001 / 2002, she did two steps. First, she found the percentage o f errors made by the students, using a percentage descriptive analysis formula, as follows:
I E
X= --- x 100 %
£T
where X = percentage o f errors E = various kinds o f errors T = Test items
In this steps, she had 39 computations o f the percentage o f incorrect answer. The result o f the data analysis are presented in die table below:
Second, the writer found die dominant errors by using reselected category approach favored by Etherton as adopted by Norris, in which die statistical computation is based on the Gulos’ formula as follows:
fi
Pi = n
X 100 °/o
Where Pi = The proportion o f frequency o f occurrence fi = Absolute frequency o f partial type o f errors
n = The total number o f possible errors observed
Related to the word “i f ’, there were 8 (eight) levels o f errors to be analyzed, they were:
1. Errors in the use o f “i f ’ as personal pronoun 2. Errors in the use of “if ’ as identification 3. Errors in the use o f “if ’ to state the weather 4. Errors in the use o f “if ’ to state the time 5. Errors in the use of “if ’ to state distance 6. Errors in the use o f “if ’ as anticipatory
7. Errors in the use o f “if ’ that does not mean anything 8. Errors in the use o f “if ’ with other linking verbs except be
PI = FI
x 100% N
Where PI = The proportion o f frequency o f occurrence o f errors as a whole FI = Absolute frequency o f types o f errors all levels
N = The total number o f possible errors o f all levels. The computation goes like this:
P I= FI
--- x 100%
N
= 546
--- x 100% 1170
= 46,67 %
Table n.
Tbe Proportion of Frequency of Occurrence of Errors
Number of
£ items
En
Error
(PI-pi) %
Subject
fi
Pi (%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
4
156
63
40,38
6,29
2 2
78
3
3,85
42,82
3
3
117
57
48,72
-2,05
4
4
156
78
50,00
-3,33
5
3
117
52
44,44
2,23
6
6
234
112
47,86
-1,19
7
4
156
64
41,02
5,65
8
4
156
117
75,00
-28,33
Total
30
1170
546
351,27
22,09
From the table above, in descending order, the most dominant through the least dominant one occurred in:
1. Errors in the use o f “it” with other linking verbs except be 2. Errors in the use o f “it” as anticipatory
3. Errors in the use o f “if ’ to state the time
4. Errors in the use o f “if ’ that does not mean anything 5. Errors in the use o f “if ’ as personal pronoun
B. The Second Analysis about The Possible canses of the errors
To get a clear description o f the sources or causes o f errors at the level o f the word “it”, the writer found it essential to tabulate the number o f causes or sources o f errors in the following: 1
Table Causes or Sources of Errors
No
Causes or Source
Total
Percentage
1
2
3
41 Transfer 8 1,46
2 Under differentiation 144 26,38
3 Split 82 15,02
4 Ignorance o f Rule Restriction
206 37,73
5 False Concept Hypothesized
106 19,41
Total
546
100,00
1. Interlingual Errors
Consulting fee table above, fee writer found out feat 234 errors (42,86 %) were interlingual errors. Those errors were caused by transfer (8 errors = 1,56 %), under - differentiation (144 errors = 26,38
%)
and split (82 errors = 15,02 %) a TransferNine errors due to transfer occurred at heading o f fee level, i.e fee use o f “if ’ as anticipatory.
Test item 24
Which one is correct?
a Five minutes pas eleven (Transfer) b. It is five minutes past eleven
c. It’s five minutes past eleven (Answer) d. It five minutes past eleven
Even though transfer is considered to be level zero, these students failed to transfer the whole pattern. It is because there is no such pattern in Indonesian Language, which is translated into utterance “Jam berapa sekarang?”, these students just translated the utterance into English ,i.e Five minutes pas eleven”.
In English sentences, this pattern needs the word “if ’ so, the correct pattern is: “it is five minutes past eleven”, or ‘I t’s five minutes past eleven”, Therefore, the item takes option C.
b. Under Differentiation
There were errors due to under - differentiation. This type o f error occurred at four headings o f the word ”it” were use “it”
1. As personal pronoun (31 errors = 21,52
%)
(Item number 9,13 = 24 + 7 = 21,52 %) 2. To state weather (29 errors = 21,52 %)1. As Anticipatory (51 errors = 35,42%)
(Item number 7,11,17 = 17 +19+15 = 51 errors). 4. That does not mean anything 933 errors = 22,92%)
(Item number 1,18 = 5 + 28 =33 errors)
Those errors occurred when students failed to use or supply the required structural items. Items that do not exist in Indonesian language confused them, because there are two or more patterns used in English as their target language.
For example, at the level o f the use “it” that does not mean anything 9test item 18), it was surprising that 23 students chose distracter A (There is) 11 students distracter C (This is )as their answers.
Test item 18
... pleasant in the garden
A There is under (Under-Differentiation) B. It is (answers)
C. This is (under- differentiation)
D. Its
