Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol09.Issue3.1998:

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Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth

9 / 3 [1998] 1 3 6 –1 4 3 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0956-6163]

Environmental issues and our chemical world – the

need for a multidimensional approach in

environmental safety, health and management

Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr

Ce ntre fo r Future -o rie nte d Studie s , Ebo nyi State , Nige ria

Environmental issues are diverse and result from differ-ent factors and situations. These call for a multidimen-sional approach to combat environmental perturbation with respect to the presenting noxious factors, such as toxic chemical elements and wastes from diverse anthro-pogenic activities. The contin-ued success of certain envi-ronmental programmes in the developed parts of the world and the continuing refi ne-ment of our environne-mental objectives in a contextually designed sustainable development, coupled with signifi -cant additional knowledge in environmental planning and management have all led to the decision for a global concerted effort to maintain and sustain our environment for the health and safety of present and future genera-tions. However, these objec-tives are not strongly under-girded in non-industrialized parts of the world, and are not wholly supported by the chemical industries and other interests because they lack the will and dedication to realise that economics and environmental management as well as health and safety are inextricably linked.

Introduction

Alt er a t ion s in b iod iver s it y in t er a ct in com -p lex w ay s w it h t h e en v ir on m en t , a n d t h e effect s a r e oft en ca u se for con cer n . Alt h ou gh t h es e a r e ev id en t glob a lly, t h e ev id en ce is m or e s o for econ om ica lly d evelop in g n a t ion s. E n v ir on m en t a l issu es in b ot h d evelop ed a n d d evelop in g n a t ion s h ave p r op elled d em a n d for r efor m a n d d eb a t e a b ou t t h e st r u ct u r e of t h a t r efor m . T h er e a r e p os sible con s eq u en ces of t oo-h a s t y a n d ill-a dv ised ch a n ges a s w ell a s n e glect . T h er e ca n b e n o d ou b t t h a t a k n ow l-ed ge of en v ir on m en t a l im p er a t ives is b ecom in g of in cr ea sin g im p or t a n ce t o p olit i-ca l lea d er s t h r ou gh ou t t h e wor ld . T h e ch a n gin g p a t t er n s of d is ea se gin cid en ce or em er -gen ce, follow in g ch a n ges in liv in g st a n d a r d s a n d p u blic h ea lt h ser v ices, a s w ell a s a lt er -a t ion s in ou r ecos y s t em -a ffect in g -a ct iv it ies in volv in g a ir, soil, a n d w a t er, r evea l t h e im p or t a n ce of en v ir on m en t a l d er a n gem en t a s ca u s es of d ecr ea sed s u s t a in a ble d evelop -m en t (Ch u k w u -m a , 1994a ). If t h e wor ld ’s p eop le a r e t o r ecogn ize t h es e con d it ion s a t t h e ea r lies t op p or t u n it y a n d a dv ise on p la n -n i-n g a -n d m a -n a gem e-n t of ou r e-n v ir o-n m e-n t , t h ey m u s t b e fa m ilia r n ot on ly w it h scien t ifi c a n d en gin eer in g p r a ct ices, bu t a lso w it h t h e gen er a l s ocia l p r in cip les on w h ich t h e p la n -n i-n g a -n d m a -n a gem e-n t a r e b a s ed . T h ese a r e so im p or t a n t t h a t t h ey m u st b e a s sim ila t ed a n d b ecom e a n in t e gr a l p a r t of ou r lives. A gen er a l la ck of in t er es t a n d / or ign or a n ce p er va d es t h e a t t it u d e of a va s t m a jor it y of p eop le a s r e ga r d s t h e en v ir on m en t .

Mos t p a r t s of t h e wor ld , es p ecia lly in d evel-op in g cou n t r ies, a r e in s ea r ch of s olu t ion s t o t h eir en v ir on m en t a l cr isis. T h e solu t ion s a r e ob t a in a ble given t h e r igh t lea d er s h ip a n d cit izen aw a r en es s. T h ese p eop le a r e fa ced w it h ser iou s econ om ic st r es s ; bu t t h e econ -om y ca n b e r es t r u ct u r ed a n d r econ s t r u ct ed so w ell t o a t t a in r ecover y. Wh ile t h eir p olit ics a n d econ om y ca n u n d er go u n for et old d e gen -er a t ion , t h is ca n n ot b e a llow ed t o h a m p -er ou r en v ir on m en t . It is n ot p r u d en t t o p er m it ou r en v ir on m en t t o b e d efer r ed t a k in g in t o con -sid er a t ion p r esen t a n d fu t u r e gen er a t ion s. An u n t ow a r d im p a ct on t h e en v ir on m en t by ch em ica l elem en t s ca n b e p er m a n en t w it h

r esu lt a n t m or t a lit y a n d d issip a t ion of b ot h fa u n a a n d fl or a .

Impact of chemical elements on

food quality

At t h e p r esen t t im e t h a t food p r od u ct ion a n d en v ir on m en t a l q u a lit y a r e of m a jor glob a l con cer n , a m u ch b et t er u n d er st a n d in g of t h e b eh av iou r of ch em ica l elem en t s in t h e soil-p la n t sy st em m u st b e of u t m ost s ign ifi ca n ce (Ch u k w u m a , 1993a ). Soil con t a m in a t ed w it h h eav y m et a ls (Ch u k w u m a , 1994b ), for in st a n ce, ca n p r od u ce cr op s w h ich look n or m a l in a p p ea r a n ce, bu t a r e u n sa fe for con -su m p t ion by a n im a ls a n d h u m a n s. Also, ir r i-ga t ion w a t er h a s t h e p ot en t ia l t o lea ch t oxic elem en t s fr om t h e soil, p er m it t in g t h em t o r ea ch d r a in a ge w a t er, t h u s en d a n ger in g a q u a t ic w ild life a s a r esu lt . In a d d it ion t o t h ese gen er a l ecologica l effect s, t h e n eed exist s t o con sid er p er t u r b a t ive effect s on cr op s, a n d in ju r y t o a n im a ls – es p ecia lly t h e h a za r d s r ela t ed t o t h e in ges t ion of soil d u r in g gr a zin g, w it h t h e p ossible r es u lt a n t a ccu m u -la t ion effect s in t h e food ch a in .

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Chrys anthus Chukwuma Sr Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r a multidime nsio nal appro ac h in e nviro nme ntal safe ty, he alth and manage me nt Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth

9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3

T h e p oss ible con t a m in a t ion of a n im a l a n d h u m a n food by t oxic m a t er ia ls is a p a r t icu -la r ly u r gen t p r oblem . For a s su r a n ce of s a fe q u a lit y of t h e food -ch a in p r od u ct s, it is im p or t a n t t o m a k e p r ov ision for t h e st a n d a r d iza t ion of t h e a llow a ble loa d in gs of con t a -m in a n t s t o a gr icu lt u r a l la n d . Ma n y

r esea r ch er s in d evelop ed cou n t r ies h ave r e p or t ed t h a t t h er e is a n e ga t ive cor r ela t ion in t h e y ield of va r iou s cr op s a n d t h e p ollu t ion of ch em ica l elem en t s su ch a s m et a ls. A sp e-cifi c in s t a n ce of p la n t p ollu t ion is u n iq u e a n d n eed s t o b e s t u d ied for a s p ecifi c en v ir on m en t (Ch u k w u m a , 1993b ; 1995a ). It is r ecogn is a bly im p or t a n t t h a t r es u lt s of st u d ies b a sed on sim u la t ion -t y p e s y st em s a r e in a d eq u a t ely r ela t ed t o t h os e in n a t u r a l sy st em s. M or eover, it is n eces s a r y t o con sid er t h e for m s in w h ich ch em ica l elem en t s a r e d ist r ibu t ed w it h in p la n t t is su es, b eca u se t h e for m s of ch em ica l elem en t s in p la n t s a p p a r en t ly p lay a d ecis ive r ole in t h e t r a n s fer of ch em ica l elem en t s t o ot h er or ga n ism s.

T h e in cr ea sin g s ign ifi ca n ce of t r a ce ele-m en t s in a n iele-m a l a n d h u ele-m a n h ea lt h ele-m a k es it im p or t a n t t o m on it or va r iou s geogr a p h ica l a r ea s s y s t em a t ica lly for t h e es t a blis h m en t of es sen t ia l d ist r ibu t ion p a t t er n of t r a ce ele-m en t s in sp ecifi c in d ica t or s. For in s t a n ce, t h e b iom on it or in g of a n im a l t is s u es or ea s ily a ccess ible p a r t s a n d t h e con cen t r a t ion of for a ges is im p or t a n t in t h e p r ed ict ion of t r a ce elem en t d efi cien cies or t oxicit ies in a n im a ls. T h e d iet a r y h a b it s of p op u la t ion s a r e im p or -t a n -t in -t r a ce elem en -t in -t a k e a n d , -t h er efor e, t h e s t u d ies of food su r veilla n ce m u s t b e con -sid er ed p er t in en t in b ot h d evelop in g a n d d evelop ed n a t ion s. T h e u t m os t b en efi t s for en v ir on m en t a l a n d p u blic h ea lt h p r oblem s a r e ob t a in a ble a t r ela t ively r ed u ced cos t s if t h e p r op h y la ct ic ch a r a ct er is t ics of es sen t ia l t r a ce elem en t s a r e p r u d en t ly exa m in ed .

The impact of pesticides and

fertilisers

Du r in g t h e 1960s a n d 1970s, im p r oved st r a in s of cr op s, in clu d in g ir r iga t ion a n d t h e exp a n -sive con s u m p t ion of ch em ica l p es t icid es a n d fer t ilizer s, con sid er a b ly in cr ea sed wor ld gr a in p r od u ct ion . How ever, p es t icid es a n d fer t ilizer s a r e cu r r en t ly losin g t h eir effect ive-n ess, a ive-n d p ollu t ioive-n a ive-n d w a t er s h or t a ges a r e a lso con t r ibu t in g t o low er y ield s. Wh en in i-t ia lly in i-t r od u ced , p es i-t icid es en a bled fa r m er s t o con t r ol w eed s w it h t h e elim in a t ion of d es t r u ct ive p est s. P a r a d oxica lly, w eed s a n d in sect s h ave in cr ea sin gly b ecom e r es is t a n t t o on e t y p e of p est icid e or a n ot h er. T h is

occu r r ed b eca u s e t h e p est icid es h a d b een p ois on in g t h e w ild life a n d in s ect s ’ n a t u r a l

p r ed a t or s a s w ell a s h u m a n s. T h is h igh ligh t s som e m a jor en v ir on m en t a l p r oblem s, a n d w h er e t h ey a r e m ost cr it ica l. A va st m a jor it y of la n d p ollu t ion is d u e t o a t m osp h er ic fa ll-ou t , w a st e d u m p in g a n d t h e sid e-effect s of h er b icid es, a s w ell a s p est icid es a n d fer t ilis-er s. Defi n it ely, a loss of h a b it a t or ot h ilis-er em n en t fa ct or s r esu lt in t h e d issip a t ion of b iod i-ver sit y w h ich w e m ay n ot a ble t o r e p a ir. Law n a n d ga r d en ch em ica ls m ay b e con t r ibu t or y t o t h e h ea lt h im p a ir m en t of b ot h a n im a ls a n d h u m a n s, esp ecia lly ch ild r en . Ch ild r en liv in g n ea r ga r d en s w h ich a r e t r ea t ed w it h h er b i-cid es or p est ii-cid es h ave a n in cr ea s ed r isk of con t r a ct in g s a r com a . Also, t h e u se of in sect i-cid es in ch ild r en ’s en v ir on m en t in cr ea ses t h e r isk of d evelop in g leu k em ia . Ma n y h ou seh old s m ay u n k n ow in gly cr ea t e a n en v ir on -m en t for t h eir ch ild r en t h a t is d a -m a gin g t o t h eir h ea lt h (Ch u k w u m a , 1997).

Impact of chemical elements on

soil, climate, and water quality

E ven t h ou gh t r a ce elem en t s con st it u t e m in or com p on en t s of t h e solid soil p h a se, t h ey a r e im p or t a n t a ct or s in soil fer t ilit y. Wellest a b -lis h ed in for m a t ion a s r e ga r d s t h e r ela t ion of t r a ce elem en t s w it h sp ecifi c soil p h a ses a n d elem en t a l a ffin it y t o a s p ecifi c soil

con st it u en t m a k es p r ov is ion for a b et t er u n d er st a n d in g of t h e p r in cip les w h ich in fl u -en ce t r a ce elem -en t b eh av iou r in soils. T h e so-ca lled “n or m a l con cen t r a t ion s” of t r a ce ele-m en t s in soils a r e u sefu l a s b a selin e va lu es r eq u ir ed for t h e a sses sm en t of t h e m a gn it u d e of soil con t a m in a t ion (Ch u k w u m a , 1994c; 1995b ; 1996a ). Au gm en t ed ch em ica l elem en t levels h ave a n a dver se im p a ct on t h e n a t u r a l r e gu la t ion of t h e soil b iot a . In soils h eav ily con t a m in a t ed by ch em ica ls or w a st es, t h er e is a d ecr ea se in t h e p op u la t ion , gr ow t h a n d fu n ct ion of b iot a . Collect in g in d igen ou s p la n t s t o r eh a b ilit a t e la n d a ft er ext en sive m in in g or ot h er d evelop m en t a l a ct iv it y m ay b e r eq u ir ed t o d ea l w it h b a d ly p ollu t ed soils for t h e p r eser va t ion of b iod iver sit y a n d con -ser va t ion . Also, t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of p la n t sp ecies w it h t h e a b ilit y t o a ccu m u la t e select ed ch em ica l elem en t s (Ch u k w u m a , 1993b ; Moffa t , 1995) is of in t er est for t h e p u r -p oses of en v ir on m en t a l b iom on it or in g, es-p e-cia lly a s it r ela t es t o t h e m on it or in g of soil com p osit ion .

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ch a n ge. An ext en sive n u m b er of ch em ica ls a r e s om et im es k n ow in gly or a ccid en t a lly r elea s ed in t o t h e en v ir on m en t . T h eir p ot en -t ia ls a s p ollu -t a n -t s d e p en d on -t h e p r od u c-t ion r a t e of r elea s e, t h eir en v ir on m en t a l d e gr a d -a b ilit y, con cen t r -a t ion s in t h e ecos y st em , -a n d or ga n ot oxicit y. At N ik el a n d M on ch e gor s k on t h e Kola P en in s u la , n or t h of t h e Ar ct ic Cir cle, t h er e a r e t wo of t h e wor ld ’s b igges t a n d m os t a n t iq u a t ed n ick el s m elt er s w h ich s p ew m or e h eav y m et a ls a n d s u lp h u r d ioxid e in t o t h e a ir a n n u a lly t h a n a n y s u ch fa ct or ies in Ru s s ia . T h e d er elict E n y igb a lea d a n d zin c m in e in N iger ia con t a in s h igh a m ou n t s of ch em ica l sa lt s a n d va r ia ble a m ou n t s of ch em ica l ele-m en t s w h ich s ee p in t o a d ja cen t r u n n in g w a t er a n d m a k e it u n su it a ble for h ea lt h y con s u m p t ion . Wa t er in t h is a r ea con t a in s a n a bu n d a n ce of ch em ica l elem en t s so t h a t b or e h oles a n d w ells h ave b een fou n d u n p a la t a ble for d r in k in g or ot h er d om es t ic u s e (Ch u k -w u m a , 1993a ; 1993b ). T h e en v ir on m en t a l im p a ct s of t h e p ollu t ion of a n a t u r a l r es ou r ce su ch a s w a t er by a b a n d on ed a n d a ct ive m in es a r e in ext r ica bly lin k ed t o t h e econ om ic im p a ct s. T h e r ed u ct ion in w a t er q u a lit y a ffect s it s b en efi cia l u ses w it h a h igh p r ice t o p ay (P en t r ea t h , 1994).

Impact of mining and other

industrial activities

In d u s t r ia l a ct iv it ies h ave t h e p ot en t ia l t o a u gm en t t h e volu m e a n d d iver s it y of t oxic su b s t a n ces a n d or ga n ic m a t t er w h ich , lik e sew a ge, a ct p r in cip a lly in t h e fer t ilis a t ion of w a t er s t o t h e ext en t w h er e exces s gr ow t h r esu lt s in d eoxygen a t ion . Also in clu d ed in t h is ca t e gor y a r e b r ew er y a n d d is t iller y w a st es a s w ell a s t h e efflu en t s of s la u gh t er -h ou s es a n d lea t -h er wor k s in clu d in g t -h e w a st es of m et a l-p r ocess in g, cer a m ics a n d ch em ica l p la n t s a s w ell a s m in in g op er a t ion s, w h ich h ave d ir ect t oxic effect s. M in in g m ay b e a com p on en t of econ om ic gr ow t h a n d d evelop m en t , bu t it s op er a t ion is p er t u r b a -t ive -t o -t h e en v ir on m en -t .

In t h e m in in g a r ea s of cer t a in d evelop in g cou n t r ies, for exa m p le, it is n ot so m u ch t h e p ay m en t of r oya lt y or t h e s ociop olit ics of d e p r iva t ion t h a t is t h e wor r y of t h e loca l in h a b it a n t s, r a t h er it is t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d s of op er a t ion s s et for t h e m in in g com p a n ies a r e n ot en v ir on m en t a lly fr ien d ly t o clea n u p or a m elior a t e t h e im p a ct s of op er a t ion s a s con -d u ct e-d in t h eir cou n t r ies of or igin a n -d ot h er d evelop ed m in in g n a t ion s. T h e in cr ea se a n d em er gen ce of in fect iou s d isea ses in b ot h t h e h os p it a ls a n d com m u n it ies of t h e m in in g d evelop in g cou n t r ies a r e m or e d u e t o la ck of sp a ce, in fr a st r u ct u r a l fa cilit ies, m a n p ow er,

a n d fu n d s r a t h er t h a n ju st a n in cr ea se in p op u la t ion gr ow t h r a t e. In a d d it ion , solid w a s t e d isp osa l a n d t oxic w a st e d isp osa l a sso-cia t ed w it h t h e p r od u ct ion of ch em ica ls, st eel, a sb est os a n d t ext ile m a t er ia ls im p a ct n e ga -t ively on -t h e en v ir on m en -t in m in in g a n d in d u s t r ia l a r ea s. In t h ese in d u st r ia l a n d m in -in g a r ea s, t h e en v ir on m en t is h igh ly p ollu t ed fr om a u t om ob ile em is sion s, p ollu t ion fr om fa ct or ies, a n d p over t y, w h ich con t r ibu t e t o a sh or t en ed life sp a n .

A gr ea t exp a n se of la n d s ca p e a n d for est s a r e d est r oyed b eca u se of excessive m in in g, r esu lt in g in soil er osion , d eser t ifi ca t ion a n d d efor est a t ion . Soil er osion con t in u es t o d a m a ge ou r la n d s ca p e, w h ile t h e s olu t ion of t r ee p la n t in g is w it h in t h e com p et en ce of t h e com m u n it y lea d er s a n d cit izen s. Deser t ifi ca -t ion h a s r ava ged su sce p -t ible p a r -t s of -t h e glob e, bu t gover n m en t r h et or ic p r eclu d es a n im m ed ia t e solu t ion t o t h is p r oblem . Defor -est a t ion a lon gsid e in t en sive loggin g r en d er s er osion a n d d eser t ifi ca t ion p oss ible; bu t con -t r ol or p r even -t ion or -t h e w ill -t o r e gr ow -t r ees t o p r even t t h e d et er ior a t ion of t h e la n d m a ss by r efor es t a t ion is a p p a r en t ly t oo d ifficu lt for a ffect ed n a t ion s t o ca r r y ou t a ft er m in in g op er a t ion s. T h e cost s of fu el a n d elect r icit y con t in u e t o b e u n m a n a gea ble t o t h e p oor in t h ese a r ea s a s t h e sea r ch for su st a in a ble h a r n ess in g of h yd r oelect r ic p ow er con t in u es. T h e iss u e is t o fi n d a d elica t e b a la n ce in or d er t o p r om ot e d evelop m en t w h ile lim it in g a s m u ch a s p os sible t h e u n avoid a ble im p a ir -m en t of cer t a in a sp ect s of t h e en v ir on -m en t .

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in -d e p t h a d ju s t m en t s in en v ir on m en t a l a n d m a cr oecon om ic p olicies b ot h loca lly a n d glob a lly t o effect ively m a n a ge t h ese s it u a -t ion s. A s u s-t a in a ble fu -t u r e s y s -t em n ecess i-t a i-t es a m or e com p r eh en sive w a i-t er m a n a ge-m en t b eca u se w a t er a n d w a t er -d e p en d en t ecos y st em s a r e in va lu a ble n a t u r a l r es ou r ces w h ich s a t is fy d iver s e u ses. Als o, t h e ecologi-ca l, en v ir on m en t a l, s ocia l a n d h ea lt h im p a ct s of t h e in la n d w a t er s a n d es t u a r ies in m in in g a n d in d u s t r ia l a r ea s w it h ever -in cr ea sin g p ollu t ion cou ld ca u se ser iou s con cer n . Ou r en v ir on m en t a l r es ou r ces, s u ch a s w a t er, la n d , a ir a n d b iod iver s it y m u s t b e d efen d ed fr om a s sa u lt s of t h e m in er a l in d u s t r y.

The chemical industry and its

epidemiological impact

T h e ch em ica l in d u st r y n eed s t o set t h e op t im u im cr it er ia for im a n a geim en t a n d p er for -m a n ce in t h e sect or s of h ea lt h , sa fet y a n d t h e en v ir on m en t . In st ea d of s a fe gu a r d in g a ll in d u s t r ia l a n d a gr icu lt u r a l wor k er s fr om b ein g exp os ed t o d a n ger ou s levels of t oxic ch em ica ls, t h e ch em ica l in d u st r y on ly s y s-t em a s-t ica lly p r eclu d es s-t h ose is-t d eem s s-t h e m os s-t v u ln er a ble wor k er s, esp ecia lly fer t ile wom en , fr om t h e wor k p la ce a n d s ever a l job s. T h e ch em ica l in d u st r y a n d som e of it s p r op on en t s p os t u la t e t h a t : a ll life d e p en d s on ch em ica ls ; n ot a ll ch em ica ls m a d e by m a n a r e d a n ger ou s; n u m er ou s n a t u r a l ch em ica ls a r e exceed -in gly t oxic; a n d n a t u r a lly occu r r -in g ca r c-in o-gen s in food con s u m ed by m a n h ave gr ea t er t oxicit y t h a n in d u st r ia l ca r cin ogen s (Zim -m er -m a n , 1995).

It h a s, h ow ever, b een d em on s t r a t ed t h a t ch em is t s exp os ed t o eleva t ed levels of ch em i-ca ls in t h e wor k p la ce exp er ien ce va r iou s d e gr ees of ca n cer of t h e p a n cr ea s, ly m p h a t ic a n d va s cu la r s y st em s, a s w ell a s s p on t a n eou s a b or t ion s, b ir t h d efect s, low a n d im p a ir ed s p er m p r od u ct ion . Als o, p a t er n a l exp os u r e t o va r iou s ch em ica ls h a s b een a ss ocia t ed w it h ch ild h ood d efect s or ca n cer. P a t er n a l exp s u r e t o ca r b on m on oxid e a n d p olycyclic a r o-m a t ic h yd r oca r b on s h a s b een lin k ed w it h ca r d ia c d efect s in ch ild r en ; lea d (P b ) exp o-s u r e lin k ed w it h ch ild h ood ca n cer of t h e k id n ey, ot h er w is e ca lled Wilm ’s t u m ou r ; a n d exp osu r e t o p et r och em ica ls a s socia t ed w it h ch ild h ood b r a in ca n cer. In a d d it ion , d eclin e in s p er m p r od u ct ion h a s b een d em on s t r a t ed in t h e gen er a l p op u la t ion . T h is m ay in d ica t e t h a t a m b ien t levels of t oxic ch em ica ls a r e cu r r en t ly eleva t ed en ou gh t o im p a ir t h e h ea lt h of t h e p op u la t ion . T h e ch em ica l in d u s-t r y m ay com p la in a b ou s-t s-t h e in cr ea sed eco-n om ic cos t of t h e r em ed ia t ioeco-n of b ot h t h e wor k p la ce a n d it s ch em ica l by -p r od u ct s, bu t

t h a t wou ld b e in com p a r a ble t o t h e h igh eco-n om ic cost t h a t fa m ily a eco-n d societ y wou ld con t in u a lly en v isa ge in ca r in g for p h y sica lly a n d m en t a lly ch a llen ged ch ild r en a n d a d u lt s exp osed t o n efa r iou s ch em ica l a gen t s d is-ch a r ged a t t h e wor k p la ce a n d in t o t h e en v i-r on m en t .

T h e en v ir on m en t a l scien ces h ave r evea led t h e t h r ea t of ever -in cr ea s in g p ollu t ion , esp e-cia lly n on -b iod e gr a d a ble ch em ica l p ollu t ion , a n d t h is h a s ca u sed s er iou s con cer n t h a t it m ay b e con t r ibu t or y t o cer t a in p r in cip a l ch r on ic d isea ses, t h u s d em a n d in g con t in u ou s su r veilla n ce a n d m on it or in g a ct iv it ies. T h e u lt im a t e goa l of e p id em iology is t h e p r ov ision of in for m a t ion t h a t lea d s t o t h e p r even -t ion of en v ir on m en -t a l d e gr a d a -t ion . Ra -t ion a l p r even t ion d em a n d s a k n ow led ge of t h e ca u se of en v ir on m en t a l a lt er a t ion . It is im p or t a n t t o a ck n ow led ge t h a t t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of t h e ca u se of a given en v ir on m en t a l p r oblem m ay n ot , in a n d of it self, b e en ou gh t o ca u se sign if-ica n t p r even t ive m ea su r es (Ch u k w u m a , 1994d ).

The extant problems of solid

wastes

In m a n y d evelop in g cou n t r ies, r u bb ish collec-t ion is ill-p la n n ed . In h igh a n d m id d le in com e a r ea s m or e t h a n in p oor a r ea s, t h er e is in cr ea sed collect ion r a t e ow in g t o a gr ea t er va lu e of t h e a ct u a l w a st e. Collect ion is oft en n on -exist en t in p oor a r ea s. T h e la ck of a n a d eq u a t e m a n a gem en t sy s t em cr ea t es a la r ge r is k for t h e s p r ea d of in fect ion , p a r a sit ic a n d e p id em ic d isea ses, t h r ou gh p eop le in volved in t h e collect ion of t h e w a st e, ch ild r en p lay -in g -in t h e st r eet s a n d scaven ger s m a k -in g t h eir liv in g on t h e d u m p sit es. N o s y st em cu r r en t ly exis t s for h osp it a l w a s t e d isp osa l. All t h ese in va r ia bly cu lm in a t e in w a t er a n d la n d d e gr a d a t ion .

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m a n y la r ge cit ies, a n d m u n icip a l w a s t es ca n in cor p or a t e h a za r d ou s m a t er ia ls.

Mos t u n w a n t ed sew a ge r ea ch es s ew a ge d r a in a ge s y st em s by t h eir gen er a t or s, bu t t h os e p ollu t a n t m a t er ia ls w h ich con t a in t oxic su b s t a n ces a s p a r t of t h e efflu en t a r e

fr eq u en t ly d r a s t ic on b ot h m icr oor ga n ism s a n d h igh er or ga n ism s w h ich u su a lly h ave a sign ifi ca n t r ole in sew a ge d e gr a d a t ion . A sign ifi ca n t r ea lisa t ion con cer n in g m u n icip a l w a st es by t h e aver a ge glob a l cit izen is t h a t sew a ge s er v ices a r e a r a r e a n d ess en t ia l com -m od it y for -m os t of t h e p op u la t ion ; h ow ever, a n u n r ea lised fa ct is t h a t t h er e is a h igh effi-cien cy a ccor d ed t o t h e m os t a dva n ced s ew a ge sy s t em s.

Ow in g t o t h e n u m er ou s s ou r ces of m u n ici-p a l w a s t es, t h eir con t r ols a r e u su a lly d iffi-cu lt , w h ich s u p p lem en t s t h e a dver s e effect of a ir p ollu t ion d u e t o t oxic s u b st a n ces. T h e goa ls of a d om est ic w a st e m a n a gem en t p r o-gr a m m e in clu d e w a st e t r ea t m en t im p r ove-m en t , en h a n ced w a s t e r ecyclin g, a n d t h e avoid a n ce of u n n eces sa r y w a s t e p r od u ct ion . Wa s t e d evelop m en t a n d m a n a gem en t a r e b r oa d ly in fl u en ced by t h e in cr ea sed p r ices for glob a l m a r k et r aw m a t er ia ls a s w ell a s t h e p op u la t ion ’s in cr ea sed en v ir on m en t a l aw a r en ess, w h ich m ay h ave a su cces sfu l t r a en s for -m a t ion in t o p osit ive sav in g a ct ion . A n ew ly d evelop ed in d u st r y for w a s t e p r ocess in g a n d r ecyclin g is en v ir on m en t a lly n ecess a r y a n d p r ofi t a ble econ om ica lly in m a n y in st a n ces. On t h e ot h er h a n d , t ech n ocr a t ic solu t ion s t o t ech n ologica l p r oblem s, s u ch a s w a s t e p r ocess in g a n d r ecyclin g, som et im es r es u lt in t h e a ccu m u la t ion of t oxic s u b st a n ces w h ich wou ld n eed sp ecifi c t r ea t m en t a n d , t h er efor e, in cr ea s ed cos t s. T h e p r oblem of t h e avoid a n ce of w a st e p r od u ct ion h a s r ea ch ed em er gen cy d im en s ion s in m a jor cit ies. T h e w a s t e p r ob -lem d oes n ot ju s t d isa p p ea r w it h t h e clos u r e of r efu s e d u m p s b eca u s e of in t er -gen er a t ion a l effect s a n d con fl ict s. Societ y ’s w a st efu l gen er a t ion a n d con s u m p t ion m ea n s t h a t t h e a ccu -m u la t ion of en v ir on -m en t a l cos t h a s t o b e b or n e by p r es en t a n d fu t u r e gen er a t ion s. T h e avoid a n ce of u n n eces sa r y w a s t e gen er a t ion w ill a id in obv ia t in g t h e h igh cos t s. It h a s b een s u gges t ed t h a t t h e r ecom m en d a t ion s for w a st e m a n a gem en t w ill r es u lt in la n d fi ll lev y a n d in cr ea sed in cin er a t ion in con t r a s t t o co-d is p os a l of h a za r co-d ou s w a s t e (Wills, 1995).

The transfer of technology for

hazardous chemical production

H a za r d ou s ch em ica ls or w a s t es a r e a n ever -in cr ea s -in g im m -in en t t h r ea t t o t h e glob a l en v ir on m en t . In d iscr im in a t e t r a n sfer of t ech n ology for t h e p r od u ct ion of ext r em ely

h a za r d ou s ch em ica ls fr om in d u st r ia lised t o n on -in d u st r ia lised cou n t r ies ca n ca u se fr e-q u en t en v ir on m en t a l con t a m in a t ion . T h e sit u a t ion is ext r em ely p er t u r b in g in sever a l d evelop in g cou n t r ies, w h er e a solu t ion t o b a sic p r ob lem s of w a t er s u p p lies a n d su it a b ly sou n d sa n it a t ion h a s yet t o b e a ch ieved . Ow in g t o t h e a b s en ce of a d eq u a t e m on it or in g sy st em s, t h e con t a m in a t ion of gr ou n d a n d su r fa ce w a t er s by t oxic ch em ica ls is in cr ea s-in g s-in n on -s-in d u s t r ia lised cou n t r ies. Loca t ion of in d u st r ies in cr ow d ed cit ies a n d m in es in n ea r by v illa ges w h ich p r od u ce h a za r d ou s ch em ica ls n eed s t o b e a b a t ed in or d er t o eva d e t h e r ecu r r en ce of s ever e d isa st er n ow a n d in t h e fu t u r e.

In d u st r ia l d evelop m en t u n d er a n y cir cu m -st a n ces ca n n ot fu lly su cceed b eca u se of t h e m a gn it u d e of t h e t h r ea t t o en v ir on m en t a n d societ y. An in it ia l solu t ion is t h e p r ov ision a n d im p lem en t a t ion of su it a ble sa fet y m ea -su r es. An ot h er v ia ble s olu t ion is n ot t o en cou r a ge in d u st r ies t o t r a n sfer h a r m fu l t ech n ology fr om in d u st r ia lised n a t ion s, p r e-ven t ion of u n n eces sa r y m in in g op er a t ion s w h ich w ill a u gm en t t h e a n t h r op ogen ic sou r ces of ch em ica l elem en t s in t h e en v ir on -m en t , t h e r e p la ce-m en t of b or e-h oles in a r ea s w h ich con t a in t oxic con cen t r a t ion s of t r a ce elem en t s w it h p r op er t a p w a t er sy s t em s, a n d st r ict r e gu la t or y m ea su r es t o a b a t e t h e h a z-a r d ou s w z-a s t e t r z-a d e.

The extant problems of the

production and disposal of

hazardous wastes

In t h e a b sen ce of a u n iver sa l cla r ifi ca t ion p r oced u r e, it is n ot ea sy t o com p a r e d a t a for t oxic a n d h a za r d ou s w a st es or ch em ica ls. Du r in g r ecen t yea r s, con sid er a ble in -p u t s h ave b een m a d e by d iffer en t n a t ion a l a n d in t er n a t ion a l a gen cies t o en u m er a t e va r iou s for m s of h a za r d ou s ch em ica ls or w a st es gen -er a t ed glob a lly, a n d t h e m a n a gem en t p r ocess im p lem en t ed , t h ou gh , w it h ou t a gen er a lly st a n d a r d ized cla s sifi ca t ion , t h e d a t a ca n on ly in d ica t e t h e sor t s a n d q u a n t it ies of h a za r d ou s w a st es or ch em ica ls gen er a t ed a n d h a n d led . Su r vey s n or m a lly in clu d e in for m a t ion on t h e q u a n t it y a n d m a n a gem en t ca p a cit y of w a st es or ch em ica ls.

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u p w it h a s olu t ion for s a fe, p er m a n en t s t or -a ge or d isp os -a l, -a n d n on e is in t h e offin g. St a t is t ics of t h e q u a lit y, ava ila b ilit y a n d d is-p os a l of t h e gen er a t ion of w a s t es h ave b een ext r em ely va r ia ble. In n u m er a ble fa ct or s lim it d ir ect com p a r ison s b et w een w a s t e d is-p os a l in va r iou s n a t ion s, s u ch a s va r ia t ion in m u n icip a l w a s t e d efi n it ion , u n clea r d is t in c-t ion b ec-t w een c-t h e c-t er m s “w a s c-t e d isp os a l” a n d “w a s t e gen er a t ion ”. F u r t h er m or e, ow in g t o t h e va r ia ble s ou r ces in t h e d er iva b ilit y of d a t a , d om est ic in t r a -t r en d id en t ifi ca t ion is com p r om is ed . T h e few ava ila ble d a t a fr om d evelop in g cou n t r ies a r e s u gges t ive t h a t w a s t e d is p osa l h a s b ecom e, a n d w ill con t in u e t o b e, a n ext en sive p r oblem in t h e im m ed ia t e fu t u r e (Ch a r lier a n d Ch a r lier, 1995). Ow in g t o t h es e fa ct or s, t h e a s sess m en t a n d eva lu a t ion of p u blic p olicy p r a ct ices, a d m in ist r a t ive a ct ion s, le gisla t ive a n d ju d icia l d ecis ion s t o effect t h e glob a l t r a n sfer a n d m a n a gem en t of w a s t es h ave n ot b een ver y clea r.

La n d fi ll, in cin er a t ion a n d s ea d u m p in g a r e in v a r ia b ly t h e w id es p r ea d u sed d isp os a l op t ion s. In d u st r ia lised cou n t r ies p er iod ica lly ca u se or con t r ibu t e t o en v ir on m en t a l p r ob -lem s w h ich d er a n ge t h e n on -in d u st r ia lised wor ld . T h e econ om ic a n d socia l cos t s of com -p ly in g w it h en v ir on m en t a l law s in in d u s t r a lised n a t ion s r es u lt ed in cer t a in m u lt i-n a t ioi-n a l cor p or a t ioi-n s d isp os ii-n g of t h eir h a za r d ou s w za s t es in cer t za in d evelop in g cou n -t r ies w h ich con fl ic-t w i-t h con s u m er, s a fe-t y, or en v ir on m en t a l law s in t h e or igin a t in g cou n -t r ies. Sever a l r ecip ien -t n a -t ion s w er e u n aw a r e of t h e d u m p in g, w h er ea s ot h er s, in d es p er a t e a n d ava r iciou s d es ir e for for eign exch a n ge, a llow ed t oxic su b st a n ces in t o t h ese cou n t r ies even w it h ou t t h e p os sess ion of a d eq u a t e t r ea t m en t fa cilit ies.

T h er efor e, in t er n a t ion a l h a za r d ou s w a s t e t r a n s p or t a t ion is of t wo k in d s :

1 t r a n s p or t a t ion t o a r ecogn ized sit e for a u t h or ized d is p osa l or t r ea t m en t ; a n d 2 ille ga l d u m p in g in a n ot h er cou n t r y. N o m a t t er t h e r ea son for h a za r d ou s w a s t e sh ip p in g, it con vey s a p olit ica lly s en sit ive is su e. H a za r d ou s a n d t oxic w a s t e d isp os a l is cu r r en t ly, or w ill b ecom e, a p r oblem of gr ave sign ifi ca n ce in t h e n ea r fu t u r e.

T h er efor e, in -d e p t h con cer n s m u s t b e b a s ed on t h e follow in g:

• t h e p r oblem s of w a s t e d isp os a l in d evelop -in g cou n t r ies ;

• t h e d ifficu lt ies of t h e h a za r d ou s w a s t e t r a d e;

• t h e b a la n ce b et w een fr ee t r a d e a n d su st a in -a b ilit y ; -a n d

• t h e r e gu la t or y issu es a s socia t ed w it h en v i-r on m en t a l con t i-r ols in d evelop in g cou n t i-r ies.

Ch em ica l a n d w a st e p r od u ct ion is

in cessa n t ly gr ow in g wor ldw id e, p a r t icu la r ly in n on -in d u st r ia lis ed n a t ion s w it h ou t a d e-q u a t e m ea s u r es for d is p os a l. F u r t h er im p le-m en t a t ion of in for le-m a t ion a l a n d ed u ca t ion a l p r ogr a m m es, collect ion sch em es com b in ed w it h a p p r op r ia t ely cu st om d esign ed t ech -n ologies w ill n cr ea se t h e a m ou -n t s a -n d va r i-et y of r ecycla ble a r t icles. In cr ea sed p u blic aw a r en ess on w a s t e a n d ch em ica l issu es in t h ese a u s t er e t im es in d evelop in g cou n t r ies r eq u ir es t h e gover n m en t t o fu n d r esea r ch in t o a p p r op r ia t ely d efi n ed n ew t ech n iq u es of w a st e r ecla m a t ion , r ecyclin g a n d d isp osa l a s w ell a s look in g for p os sible r e gu la t or y m ea -su r es a n d le ga l in st r u m en t s on t h e h a za r d ou s w a st e t r a d e. T h is w ill a r ou se t h e in t er est of in d iv id u a ls, com m u n it ies a n d in d u st r ia l con cer n s r esu lt in g in econ om ica lly v ia ble d evelop m en t of n ew w a st e d isp osa l t ech n iq u es a n d ser v ices.

Environmental management and

pollution control: a

multidimensional problem

Ir r esp ect ive of t h e p r oblem , on e of t h e p r in ci-p a l ob ject ives of en v ir on m en t a l m a n a gem en t a n d p ollu t ion con t r ol is t o obv ia t e st r essin g a va lu ed ecosy s t em , s u ch a s fa r m la n d , for est , or w ild er n ess b eyon d t h e lim it s of r esilien ce of t h e p a r t icu la r sp ecies d esir ed t o b e p er p et -u a t ed . An en v ir on m en t a l et h ica l p r ocess for t h e fu n d a m en t a l aw a r en ess of ou r en v ir on m en t is n eed ed . E n v ir on m en t a l con s cien -t iou sn ess wou ld a id p eop le of -t h e wor ld -t o sa fe gu a r d t h eir en v ir on m en t . N a t ion a l en v i-r on m en t a l p i-r ot ect ion a gen cies a n d ot h ei-r gover n m en t b od ies ca n a d eq u a t ely r esp on d t o t h is issu e if on ly in t er n a l p olit ics a n d d ir ect gover n m en t in t er fer en ce in t h e a ct iv it ies of va r iou s a gen cies d o n ot d r a st ica lly in h ib it it . As fa r a s w e gen er a lly a ck n ow led ge a t p r e-sen t , p la n et ea r t h is t h e on ly p la ce w h er e life for m s exist . It is im p or t a n t t o a ct iva t e a n d em p ow er p eop le t o en cou r a ge t h em t o bu ild a n d m a in t a in t h e ca p a cit y n ecessa r y for su s-t a in a ble d evelop m en s-t .

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b iom on it or in g of b ot h fa u n a a n d fl or a t o t h e m a n a gem en t of b iologica l d iver s it y, h ea lt h , food -ch a in lin k a ge, a ir, s oil, a n d w a t er in b ot h d evelop in g a n d d evelop ed n a t ion s (Ch u k w u m a , 1996b ).

T h e p r om ot ion of su st a in a ble d evelop m en t t h r ou gh t h e in t e gr a t ion of en v ir on m en t a l con s id er a t ion s in t o d evelop m en t p la n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t is a k ey ch a llen ge fa cin g t h e in t er n a t ion a l com m u n it y. T h is b r in gs t o t h e for efr on t t h e cen t r a l r ole t h e p eop le d ir ect ly in volved m u s t p lay in t h e d ecis ion m a k in g p r ocess. E d u ca t ion of b ot h p r ofes -sion a ls a n d t h e gen er a l p u blic, in d iv id u a l m ot iva t ion a n d m ea n s of en v ir on m en t a l p ol-lu t ion con t r ol by societ y a t la r ge a s w ell a s gover n m en t a l effor t s m ay b e p er t in en t . E ven w it h s t r in gen t p r even t ive m ea su r es, t h er e m ay b e vest ed fi n a n cia l in t er es t s, ot h er cu l-t u r a l a n d s ocioecon om ic fa cl-t or s lia ble l-t o fr u s t r a t e en v ir on m en t a l p ollu t ion con t r ol effor t s, es p ecia lly in t h e ch em ica l in d u st r y a n d m in in g sect or.

Mu ltidisciplin a r y r esea r ch m u st seek to stim u la te th e scien tifi c com m u n ity a n d th e pu blic to ta k e a ction to a ddr ess th e in ter con n ected issu es of globa l en vir on m en ta l de gr a -da tion , popu la tion con tr ol, food issu es, a gr icu ltu r a l sa fety a n d h ea lth , developm en t, ocicu -pa tion a l a n d en vir on m en ta l h ea lth , eva lu a tion of th e con sequ en ces of gover n m en ta l policies a n d r e gu la tion s of in du str ia l pr a ctice, a s well a s con su m ption w ith a br oa d u n der sta n din g of globa l en vir on m en ta l issu es. Resea r ch in ter -ests m u st a lso be in volved in com plex m ix-tu r es of en vir on m en ta l con ta m in a n ts, r isk distr ibu tion a n d its policy im plica tion s, su s-ceptible popu la tion s, a n d oth er policy-r eleva n t a spects of exposu r e a n d r isk a ssessm en t in dea lin g w ith en vir on m en ta l issu es a n d pr e-ven tive str a te gies for livin g in a ch em ica l wor ld. Th is, th er efor e, str etch es in to th e socia l a n d scien tifi c dim en sion s of en vir on m en ta l ea r th scien ces a n d geologica l a ctivity.

All t h es e n eed t o focu s on t h e d evelop m en t of r ev iew p r ocess es for t h e a ss es s m en t a n d eva lu a t ion of t h e im p a ct of p u blic p olicy p r a c-t ices, le gis la c-t ion , a d m in is c-t r a c-t ive p r oced u r es a n d a ct ion s, a s w ell a s ju d icia l d ecision s for t h e p r ov is ion of s t r a t e gic a p p r oa ch es for fu t u r e d om est ic a n d glob a l p olicies a n d t h eir con s eq u en ces (Ch u k w u m a , 1996b ). Mor eover, in t er est w ill b e la id on d evelop in g com m u n it y effor t s on p r en or m a t ive a n d p r ele gisla -t ive a sp ec-t s for -t h e fa cili-t a -t ion of p olicy a n d a ct ion in r ela t ion t o t h e en v ir on m en t a n d su s t a in a ble d evelop m en t .

Ir r es p ect ive of t h e d ir e r eq u ir em en t for in cr ea s in g va r iet ies of en v ir on m en t a l sp ecia lis t s in d es ign in g p r ot ocols a n d t o co-op er a t e t oget h er a s a t ea m in in t er n a t ion a l a n d d om es t ic en v ir on m en t a l p r ot ect ion , it

m u st b e r ecogn ized t h a t a t ea m a p p r oa ch m ay n ot b e cu r r en t ly p r a ct ica ble. In sever a l sect ion s of b ot h d evelop in g a n d d evelop ed cou n t r ies t h er e a r e n ot s u fficien t or w ell-gr oom ed en v ir on m en t a l s p ecia list s, m od er n t ech n ology, d iffer en t m in d -set s a cr oss d iscip lin es, et c. t o iscip er for m oiscip t im u m en v ir on m en -t a l clea n -u p a d eq u a -t ely, for in s -t a n ce. Desp i-t e t h is d ifficu lt y, t h e m u lt id iscip lin a r y a p p r oa ch n eed s a d a p t a t ion a s w id ely a s p ossible, a lb eit , con t ext u a lly t o t h e p r eva ilin g en v ir on m en t a l p r oblem . T h e su ccess of a n y en v ir on -m en t a l p la n n in g a n d -m a n a ge-m en t -m u st t o a gr ea t ext en t d e p en d on h u m a n r ela t ion s.

Discussion and conclusion

E n v ir on m en t a l issu es for m a la r ge gr ou p of p r oblem s of va r y in g in cid en ce, sit e, ext en t , ca u ses a n d s u it a b ilit y of en v ir on m en t a l a n d n a t u r a l r esou r ce u se a n d r ecla m a t ion or r em ed ia t ion , a m on gst ot h er s. T h is va r ia b ilit y of fea t u r es, ch a r a ct er izin g en v ir on m en t a l d e gr a d a t ion t r a d it ion a lly d esign a t ed by a com m on t er m , a n d t h e va r ia b ilit y of m et h od s u sed for t h eir p r even t ion a n d con t r ol n ecessi-t a ecessi-t es a collececessi-t ive a p p r oa ch ecessi-t o a ll p r oblem s a ssocia t ed w it h t h e p la n n in g a n d m a n a ge-m en t of ou r en v ir on ge-m en t . T h ese fa ct or s sh ou ld en cou r a ge a m u lt im od a l t ea m a p p r oa ch t o t h e m od er n a p p r oa ch for t h e con t r ol a n d p r even t ion of en v ir on m en t a l p ollu t ion . It is a p p a r en t t h a t in t h e fu t u r e, a m u lt im od a l a p p r oa ch w ill m a k e sign ifi ca n t im p a ct on ou r en v ir on m en t .

Sp ecia l in t er est m u st b e b a sed on t h e dy n a m ics of st u dy in g a cr oss d iscip lin a r y b ou n d a r ies a s r ela t ed t o en v ir on m en t a n d d evelop m en t . Con t r ibu t ion m u st n ot b e con -fi n ed t o en v ir on m en t a l scien ce, p er se, bu t t o see d isea se a s m u ch a s a m a t t er of p over t y, ign or a n ce a n d in ju st ice a s well a s p olit ica l econ om y of en v ir on m en t a l d e gr a d a t ion a n d socia l welfa r e. T h e d eva st a t in g im p a ct s of econ om ic d evelop m en t a s it is in gen er a l con -ceived a n d p r om ot ed w it h t h e in t r od u ct ion of t oxic ch em ica l elem en t s in t o t h e env ir on -m en t , a n d t h e r ela t ion sh ip s of d eb t , st r u ct u r a l a d ju st m en t p r ogr a m m es a n d p op u la t ion d is-p la cem en t s m u st b e a ck n ow led ged t o d efi n e p r oblem s r ela t ed t o en v ir on m en t a l issu es.

(8)

9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3

w h ich im p a ct on t h e p r od u ct iv it y of food p r od u cer s wor ldw id e. Con cer n ed cit izen s of t h e wor ld m u s t a d d r ess w id esp r ea d con cer n s a b ou t b iod iver sit y, soil d e gr a d a t ion , a n d t h e q u a lit y of p r oject s on en v ir on m en t a l, a gr icu l-t u r a l a n d n a l-t u r a l r es ou r ces cr il-t ica l l-t o l-t h e h ea lt h , s a fet y, s u ccess a n d fu t u r e h u m a n w ellb ein g in a ch em ica l wor ld , a s w e en t er t h e t w en t y -fi r s t cen t u r y.

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