DESIGNING A SET OF READING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING GAMES FOR THE FIFTH GRADE STUDENTS OF SANTA MARIA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL MAGELANG
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Ima Putri Wulandari
Student Number: 051214040
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
i
DESIGNING A SET OF READING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING GAMES FOR THE FIFTH GRADE STUDENTS OF SANTA MARIA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL MAGELANG
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Ima Putri Wulandari
Student Number: 051214040
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
iv
I will not die an unlived life.
I will not live in fear of falling or
catching fire.
I choose to inhabit my days,
to allow my living to open me,
to make me less afraid, more accessible,
to loosen my heart
until it becomes a wing, a torch, a promise.
I choose to risk my significance;
to live so that which comes to me
as seed goes to the next as blossom
and that which comes to me as blossom,
goes on as fruit.
-D awna M arkova-
v
vii
ABSTRACT
Wulandari, Ima. P. 2010. Designing a Set of Reading Instructional Materials Using Games for the Fifth Grade Students of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Reading played an important role of language learning. Based on the observations, it was found that most of the fifth grade students of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang were interested in learning reading. However, they had low motivation to read in English. Therefore, this study is intended to design reading instructional materials using games for the fifth grade students of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang. There are two questions formulated in the problem formulation. The first question is about how to design a set of reading instructional materials using games for the fifth grade students of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang. The second question is related to the presentation of the designed materials.
To answer the first research question, the writer employed Research and Development (R & D) and adapted the combination of Kemp’s and Dick and Carey’s instructional design model in designing the materials. The materials were designed using games because it is the most appropriate way of the children learning. Moreover, this study was designed based on School-Based Curriculum 2006. The writer constructed seven steps in this adapted instructional design model. They are 1) Conduct the Learners’ Analysis, 2) Identify the Learning Objectives, 3) Formulate the Indicators, 4) Compose Reading Materials, 5) Decide the Teaching-Learning Activities, 6) Conduct the Survey Research, 7) Revise the Materials.
In answering the second research question, this study presented the final version of the designed materials. It consists of eight units. They are Self Introduction, Family, Occupation, Calendar, Daily Activities, Times, Health and Hospital, Weather and Seasons. Each unit in the designed materials is divided into four sections. They are Presentation, Practice, Production, and Games.
From the designed materials evaluation survey, the writer gained that the degree of agreement percentage of the designed materials is 66.6%. This result shows that the designed materials are acceptable and appropriate for the fifth grade students of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang.
Hopefully, the designed materials can be applied in the school to facilitate the students to improve their reading skill.
viii
ABSTRAK
Wulandari, Ima. P. 2010. Designing a Set of Reading Instructional Materials Using Games for the Fifth Grade Students of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Reading berperan penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa. Dari pengamatan yang dilakukan, diketahui bahwa sebagian besar siswa kelas lima SD Santa Maria Magelang tertarik dalam pelajaran reading. Akan tetapi, mereka cenderung memiliki motivasi yang rendah setiap kali membaca dalam bahasa Inggris. Oleh karena itu, studi ini bertujuan untuk merancang materi pembelajaran reading menggunakan Games untuk siswa kelas lima SD Santa Maria Magelang. Ada dua pertanyaan penelitian yang dikemukakan dalam studi ini. Pertanyaan penelitian yang pertama adalah bagaimana merancang materi pembelajaran reading menggunakan Games untuk siswa kelas lima SD Santa Maria Magelang.
Pertanyaan penelitian yang kedua adalah bagaimana bentuk penyajian materi tersebut.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian yang pertama, penulis menerapkan metode R & D (metode penelitian dan pengembangan) dan mengadaptasi kombinasi dari model perancangan Kemp dan Dick dan Carey dalam merancang materi. Materi dirancang menggunakan Games karena ini adalah cara yang paling sesuai untuk pembelajaran anak. Selain itu, studi ini dirancang berdasarkan Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP). Penulis merancang tujuh langkah dalam model tersebut, Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah: 1) Conduct the Learners’ Analysis, 2) Identify the Learning Objectives, 3) Formulate the Indicators, 4) Compose Reading Materials, 5) Decide the Teaching-Learning Activities, 6) Conduct the Survey Research, 7) Revise the Materials.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian yang kedua, studi ini menyajikan hasil akhir materi. Materi terdiri dari delapan unit, yaitu Self Introduction, Family, Occupation, Calendar, Daily Activities, Times, Health and Hospital, Weather and Seasons. Setiap unit terbagi menjadi empat bagian utama, yaitu Presentation, Practice, Production, dan Games.
Dari hasil survei evaluasi materi, nilai prosentase yang diperoleh dari desain materi adalah 66.6%. Hasil tersebut menunjukkan bahwa desain materi tersebut dapat diterima dan digunakan untuk mengajarkan reading pada siswa kelas lima SD Santa Maria Magelang.
Materi ini diharapkan dapat diterima di sekolah untuk memfasilitasi siswa-siswa dalam meningkatkan kemampuan membaca mereka dalam Bahasa Inggris.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank Jesus Christ for always being
here by my side and giving me endless blessing, grace, and also power to finish
my study. I thank Him for always guiding me throughout my life.
My deepest gratitude goes to Christina Kristiyani S.Pd., M.Pd. as my
major sponsor for her guidance, suggestions, kindness, and patience in finishing
my thesis. My appreciation also goes to the teaching and secretariat staff in
English Language Education Study Program, and all the librarians. I would never
have finished my study without their help. I am deeply grateful to all lecturers of
English Language Education Study Program for guiding and teaching me during
my study in Sanata Dharma University. I sincerely thank FX. Ouda Teda Ena,
S.Pd., M.Pd., and Dr. Retno Muljani. M.Pd., my academic advisors, for the
guidance and support during my study. Moreover, I sincerely thank C. Tutyandari,
S.Pd., M.Pd., Drs. J.B. Gunawan, M.A., and G. Punto Aji, S.Pd., M.Hum., for
their suggestions, comments, and criticism toward my designed materials.
My special thankfulness also goes to Sr. M. Antonia, Y. SPM., the
headmaster of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang. I thank her for giving
me the opportunity to teach the students so I could conduct the study in Santa
Maria Elementary School Magelang. I would also like to give my special
gratitude to Erlina Isfandari, Stefanus Budiarto, Ignatius Sugiarto, S.Pd.,
Triweningastuti, S.Pd., Ammia Mintatik, Suwandi Benedictus and all of the
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supports, help, guidance, and suggestions. My special thankfulness goes to all of
my students in Santa Maria Elementary School, especially for fifth graders, for
their help and cooperation during the data gathering.
My truly gratitude is addressed to my parents, my father, Fransiscus Imam
Basuki, and my mother Anastasia Ardhaningsih. I would like to thank them for
their endless prayers, supports, and love they give to me. Moreover, I would like
to say my deepest sorry because I took too much time to finish my study. This
thesis is especially presented for their pride and happiness. Thanks for the tears
and all sacrifices they give to me. My appreciation goes beyond words. I also
would like to thank my big family for always reminding me to finish my thesis. I
thank my lovely brother, Yohanes Ardhi Prasetio for his help, prayers and
motivation.
My deepest thanks also go to my friends Agatha Pepy Yerinta, Erythrina
Cahyaningsih, Theresia Novitasari, and Berenicee Indriani Kusumastuti for such
beautiful friendship, love, supports, help and critics throughout my life and my
study. I thank them for the time, happiness and sadness we share together. I learnt
much about life and togetherness.
I also thank my very best friends, Yutriana Retno Satiti, Annisa Nidya,
and Dhita for their support and long lasting friendship. I thank them for teaching
me how to understand and being understood, for happiness and sadness we shared
together. My special thanks also go to my boarding house family, Irmina Budi
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thank them for their love, support and for giving me a warm togetherness. I thank
them especially for being my second family. I love them much.
Last but not least, I thank Zani from whom I always receive love, sincere
support, and boundless understanding through his ups and downs. I really thank
him for always being there for me, and for always comforting and cheering me up
through my good and bad times.
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE... ... i
APPROVAL PAGES... ... ii
DEDICATION PAGE.. ... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
PAGE OF PUBLICITY . ... vi
ABSTRACT .. ... vii
ABSTRAK ... ... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS .. ... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ... xv
LIST OF TABLES .. ... xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background ... ... 1
B. Problem Formulation ... ... 6
C. Problem Limitation.... ... 7
D. Research Objectives .. ... 7
E. Research Benefits .... ... 8
xiii
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description . ... 12
1. Instructional Design Models ... ... 12
a. Kemp’s Model... ... 13
b. Dick and Carey’s Model ... 14
2. Reading... ... 19
a. The Nature of Reading.... ... 20
b. Reading Purposes ... 21
c. The Abilities and Skills Involved in the Process of Learning to Read ... .... 22
d. The Basic Principles of Reading ... 26
e. The Stages in Teaching Reading ... 29
3. The Nature of the Fifth Grade Students of the Elementary School 32
4. Curriculum 2006 .. ... 36
5. Using Games to Teach English to Elementary School Students ... 37
B. Theoretical Framework . ... 41
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ... 46
B. Research Respondents ... 47
C. Research Instruments ... 47
D. Data Gathering Technique ... 49
xiv
F. Research Procedure ... 51
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A. The Steps of Designing a Set of Materials ... 53
1. Conduct the Learners Analysis ... 54
2. Identify the Learning Objectives ... ... 56
3. Formulate the Indicators ... 57
4. Compose Reading Materials ... 59
5. Decide the Teaching-Learning Activities ... 60
6. Conduct the Survey Research ... ... 62
7. Revise the Designed Materials ... ... 66
B. Presentation of the Final Version of the Designed Materials ... 67
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ... ... 71
B. Suggestions ... 73
REFERENCES ... 75
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ... 14
Figure 2.2 Dick and Carey’s Instructional Design Model ... 19
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Table 4.1 The Result of the Needs Survey ... 55
Table 4.2 The Indicators ... 57
Table 4.3 The Description of the Research Participants ... 63
Table 4.4 Degree of Agreement ... 64
Table 4.5 The List of Participant’s Evaluation ... 64
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
Appendix A ... 79
Letter of Permission to the Headmaster of Santa Maria Elementary School ... 80
Appendix B ... 81
Questionnaire of Research & Information Collecting ... 82
Appendix C ... 85
Questionnaire for the Designed Set of Materials Evaluation ... 86
Appendix D ... 89
Gambaran Umum ... 90
Appendix E ... 96
Syllabus of Santa Maria Elementary School ... 97
Appendix F ... 105
Lesson Plan of Santa Maria Elementary School ... 106
Appendix G ... 122
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the introduction of this study. There are six
important parts elaborated in this chapter. They are background, problem
limitation, problem formulation, research objectives, research benefits, and
definition of terms.
A. Background
It is unavoidable that English plays an important role in Indonesian
education. It brings Indonesian people facing the globalization era in which the
people are demanded to master the international language in any work field.
Considering this fact, since 1994 English is introduced to elementary schools in
Indonesia starting from grade four based on the 1994 curriculum of Elementary
Education (Depdikbud, 1994). Fortunately, the new curriculum 2006 supported
that English could be taught from the first grade in elementary school, since in this
curriculum each Elementary school has their own authority in deciding what local
content should and should not be taught based on their needs and competencies. It
shows that English becomes a significant factor in developing the elementary
students. However, this subject is an optional subject and functions as a local
content subject. It means that English will be taught in some elementary schools
that consider English as a necessary subject for their students. Moreover, English
is included as a local content subject to develop the competencies appropriate with
the characteristics and local community potentials including the local superiority
in which the materials could not be included in the available subjects. Local
content subject substation is determined by the education unit, and unlimited on
the skills lessons (Depdikbud, 2006).
In learning English, there are four macro skills the students should master.
They are reading, speaking, listening, and writing. McKim says that among those
macro skills, reading is the most important aspect of living in school and society.
Reading serves many different purposes and it calls for a wide variety of skill,
attitude, and understanding. Reading is a vehicle for obtaining ideas, improving
knowledge on serving as a tool of the acquisition mind. Through readings, one
may learn ideas, concepts, attitudes, and may take benefits from them in the future
(McKim, 1958: 15). Catherine Wallace (1992: 3) also states that reading plays an
important role in the English language learning process for it may be an initial
gate for the mastery of the whole skills for it is related to many language
components and linguistic features. Realizing the significance of reading in
human social and individual life, McKim (1958: 12) states her idea concerning
this matter, “people are alert and receptive to new ideas when he is ready to
answer a specific question, he has learned to identify and to read as carefully as
necessary the section of the material that bears directly to a problem.”
Krashen (1993: 23) argues that reading is the only way to become good
readers, to develop a good writing style, an adequate vocabulary, advanced
grammar, and the only way to become good spellers. A student who is a good
weak reader. Therefore, reading is one of the important parts in learning a
language since it determines students’ performance in the classroom. Moreover,
reading is now in more demand than in any time in the history. With the exposure
of the internet in the global area, students need to master reading in order to
understand the vast knowledge of the world.
To maximize the mastery of reading skills, the teachers should teach
reading to the beginner, or kindergarten and elementary school level, in order to
master the reading and other skills well. Moreover, they are still in the critical
period of the brain in which they can learn and memorize a language easier, so it
will also be easy for the students to learn and master the language components and
the linguistics features of the language, in this case English (Goodman, 1976).
Teaching reading to children starting to learn English is not easy since
most of the children do not have sufficient basic knowledge of English in terms of
how to understand and comprehend reading texts. However, it is completely
possible for young learners to learn reading skill. As David Wechsler (1958) states
that the younger the children are, the easier they will learn. In this study, the
writer chooses the fifth grade students of Santa Maria Elementary School
Magelang as the subject of the study. Since the writer has experiences in teaching
the students in that school therefore the writer chose Santa Maria Elementary
School Magelang. Moreover, the reason of choosing the fifth grade children is
that the writer does not want to take any risk of selecting the sixth grade who are
already prepared for facing the final graduation evaluation and still afraid of
In fact, the students in this school rarely had an opportunity to practice
their reading skill since most of the teachers are likely to use the old teaching
techniques where the teacher becomes the center of the learning process, in which
he or she is the one who charges the learning process. In this technique, the
students are given a passage in which they should read it by themselves and they
are assigned to answer the questions made by the teacher in written form. By the
end of the activity, the teacher will discuss the answer together with the students.
By using this technique, many students feel stressed, bored, and pressured. In
addition, they cannot show their mastery to the materials given and they also
cannot both interact nor communicate with their mates because they read the
materials by themselves. These attitudes lead a negative perception that reading is
boring and wasting their time. They will soon begin to lose their interest and
delights to be found in the printed words and sentences.
In order to cope with the negative attitude towards reading, teachers have
to be able to implement appropriate technique in teaching reading. One of the
techniques that can avoid the students’ boredom is by using a game. It is
commonly believed that games are a common interesting activity. It was assumed
that using games could stimulate students’ curiosity and make them feel more
competent as they learn. Curiosity and fell more competent are elements of
intrinsic motivation. It is important to gain intrinsic motivation because
motivation to learn is encouraged when the source of motivation are intrinsic.
It is necessary to be explained why games are chosen in teaching English
to children. There are several reasons why a teacher uses games in teaching
English to children. It is related to the instable condition of the elementary school
students and they still need appropriate learning stimulation. In the teaching
learning process, children need interesting teacher, interesting methods,
interesting materials, interesting activities, and interesting learning situation. The
teacher should understand what the students need. Game is one of the learning
techniques which is able to attract the students’ attention and interest.
Finochiaro (1989) reveals that games can reduce tension in class and help
to fulfill the needs of interaction among students. However, it must be in
accordance with the students’ level. It is indispensable that teacher should take
their students proficiency in English into account. It means that games used
should be appropriate for the students’ knowledge of English. If the games are too
difficult or confusing, students will be frustrated and will not want to learn.
Hence, teacher should be selective in choosing games that will be adequate for
their students’ proficiency.
Moskowitz (1978) describes many types of games. They are moving
game, miming game, drawing game, obeying game, identifying game, describing
game, comparing game, matching game, grouping game, ordering game,
remembering or memorizing game, stimulus response game, spontaneous
response game, and creating game. He also classifies games into individual and
In this study, games are used for overcoming the students’ difficulties in
mastering reading as mentioned above. Game is involved into individual response
game because it requires each individual in the classroom to be able to show their
mastery toward the materials given. Their mastery is indicated through their
ability to deliver what they have comprehended in compliance with the materials.
It also brings the students into an interactive and communicative reading learning
situation. In this game, the students communicate ideas they have got from their
reading session to their friends in the classroom.
In the games, the students manifest or participate in creating
communicative classroom situation. The writer designed games in teaching the
fifth grade students in Santa Maria Elementary School. By using this game, the
children are expected not only to master the reading comprehension for
themselves but also transfer the information they have got to their mates. This is
aimed to help the students to express their feelings, and ideas to their mates so that
they will have larger point of view about comprehending the reading text.
Moreover, it will also help to create a good socialization among the students.
According to Wright’s considerations about the games should be used, it
provides interesting activities that may make the students enjoy with the teaching
learning process. In addition, games is also appropriate with the student’s ages
since the games procedures are quite simple that make the students easily involve
B. Problem Formulation
This study intends to design the English reading instructional materials
using the games for the fifth grade students in Santa Maria Elementary School.
The problems that the writer attempts to examine in this research are as follows.
1. How are the English reading instructional materials using Games for the fifth
grade students in Santa Maria Elementary School designed?
2. What do the designed set of the English reading instructional materials using
Games look like?
C. Problem Limitation
This designed materials is made especially for the fifth grade students of
Santa Maria Elementary School. This study will focus on developing and
designing reading instructional materials using the games in teaching reading
comprehension for the fifth grade students Santa Maria Elementary School. The
materials include activities and instruction suitable with the teaching technique.
To strengthen the study, the writer involves the fifth grade students of
Santa Maria Elementary School and some English lecturers. They are given
questionnaires to determine appropriate activities for the reading materials using
the games.
D. Research Objectives
1. To describe and identify the ways to design the English reading instructional
materials using Games for the fifth grade students of Santa Maria Elementary
School.
2. To present the designed materials.
E. Research Benefits
1. For Elementary School English Teacher
Hopefully, a set of reading instructional materials using the games being
composed have many functions as an instructional material, and can help the
teachers to effectively teach reading comprehension. The research could inspire
teachers of the elementary school to select and develop instructional materials for
their own purposes based on the objectives already predetermined in the
curriculum.
2. For the Fifth Grade Students of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang
It is expected that the developed set of reading instructional materials
using games can help the fifth grade students in comprehending a reading passage
so as to increase their reading skill. It can also be beneficial for students to have
pleasure and to interest them in English reading class.
3. For Further Researchers
This study will help further researchers in designing materials as
contribution especially in educational field. It provides not only the various kinds
effectiveness of game technique, so that it might become a stimulus for further
researcher to design better material.
F. Definition of Terms
There are several terms used in this thesis which need to be clarified to
avoid misinterpretation.
1. Design
Design refers to developed plan to guide educational activity in a situation
(Houle, 1978: 230). Then designing is the same as creating a new set of materials
that fits the learning objectives and specific subject area of particular learners
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1994: 106). In this study, design refers to developed plan
of a new set of materials to guide educational activity in specific area of particular
learners to reach the learning objectives.
2. Reading
Reading is used as the basis to teach other language skills (Bright and
McGregor, 1970: 52). They said that general knowledge depends on reading. It
means that by reading, people can obtain a lot of information from books, articles,
newspapers, and magazines so that they can learn science and technology better.
In this study, reading refers to comprehending or understanding a passage
the students read. Moreover, it is through reading that they are able to understand
3. Instructional materials
Instructional materials are materials planned or designed by the teacher for
instruction (Dick and Carey, 1990). In this study, instructional material is a set of
units arranged based on the level of difficulties used by the teacher, while the
students as the focus of discussion in teaching learning activities. A wide variety
of instructional materials have been used to sustain communicative approaches to
language teaching. Therefore, the materials have the primary role of promoting
communicative language use.
4. Games
Games is an aid and alternative to reduce tension in a classroom
atmosphere and it is intended to help learner understand the lesson while using it
in real interaction with peers (Heinich, 1992: 300). In this study, “games” refer to
reading practices in order to review all materials they have just studied so they
will have longer memorization in comprehending the lesson. It is assumed that by
using the games, the students’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can be aroused.
Games, in this study, is an activity in which the learners do something to
communicate to others their understanding, their feelings and their ideas, rather
than just a response that is private (Wright, 2006: 94). The students’ response is
not only to understand the reading passage but also to communicate their
understanding to others. The students attain the response through an interesting
5. Santa Maria Elementary School
In this study, elementary school refers to a school for the children from 6
or 7 to 12 or 13 years old. There are three things that should be considered in this
research related to the Elementary School. The first is the elementary students, the
second is the stages of intellectual development of children and the third is the
curriculum.
Santa Maria Elementary School is one of the best Catholic Elementary
School in Magelang. In this study, Santa Maria Elementary School is the subject
of the designed materials implementation. The writer concerns to the fifth grade
students of Santa Maria Elementary School since in this grade, the students are
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents detailed discussion about some theories as the bases
for designing materials using game in teaching reading to the fifth grade students
of Santa Maria Elementary School Magelang. This chapter is divided into two
sections; they are theoretical description and theoretical framework. The
theoretical description presents a detailed discussion of some important concepts
related to the research. The concepts discussed here are (1)Instructional Material
Design, (2) Reading, (3) The Nature of the Fifth Grade Students of Elementary
School, (4) Curriculum 2006, and (5) Using Games to Teach the Fifth Grade
Students of Elementary School. The theoretical framework presents the discussion
on the relation among the concepts stated before.
A. Theoretical Description
1. Instructional Material Design
It is necessary to design the instructional materials in order to gain
significant learning performance for the students. There are two models of
developing program, which are discussed in this part, namely (a) Kemp’s model
and (b) Dick and Carey’s model.
a. Kemp’s Model
Kemp (1977: 8-9) presents eight elements in designing the program
development. He states that there is interdependence among the eight elements;
decisions rating to one may affect others. These eight elements stated as follows.
1) The teacher should consider goals, list topics, and state the general purposes
for teaching each topic.
2) The teacher enumerates the important characteristics of the learners for whom
the instruction is to be designed.
3) The teacher specifies the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of
measurable student behavioral outcomes.
4) The teacher should list the subject content to support each objective.
5) The teacher develops pre-assessment to determine the students’ background
and to present their level of knowledge about the topic.
6) The teacher selects teaching/learning activities and instructional resources
that will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives.
7) The teacher should coordinate such support services as budget, personnel,
facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.
8) The teacher evaluates students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of
objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan
Figure 1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model (Kemp, 1977: 10) b. Dick and Carey’s Models
Dick and Carey (1990: xx) also propose ten steps in developing a language
program. The steps will be briefly described as follows.
1) Assess Needs to Identify Goal(s)
The first step in the model is to determine what it is that the designer wants
learners to be able to do when they have completed the instruction. The
instructional goal may be derived from a list of goals, from a needs assessment,
Revise
Subject Content Support
Services
Evaluation
Goals, Topics and
Purposes
Learning Objectives Learner
characteristic
Pre-assessment
from practical experience with learning difficulties of students, from the analysis
of people who are doing a job, or from some other requirement for new
instruction.
2) Conduct Instructional Analysis
After the designer has identified the instructional goal, he/she will
determine step-by- step what people are doing when they perform that goal. The
final step in the instructional analysis process is to determine what skills,
knowledge, and attitudes, known as entry behaviors, are required of learners to be
able to begin the instruction. A diagram will be produced to depict the
relationships among all of the skills that have been identified.
3) Analyze Learners and Contexts
In addition to analyzing the instructional goal, there is a parallel analysis
of the learners, the context in which they will learn the skills, and the context in
which they will use them. Learners' current skills, preferences, and attitudes are
determined along with the characteristics of the instructional setting and the
setting in which the skills will eventually be used. This crucial information shapes
a number of the succeeding steps in the model, especially the instructional
strategy.
4) Write Performance Objectives
Based on the instructional analysis and the statement of entry behaviors,
the designer will write specific statements of what the learners will be able to do
will be used to identify the skills to be learned, the conditions under which the
skills must be performed, and the criteria for successful performance.
5) Develop Assessment Instruments
Based on the objectives the designer has written, develop assessments that
are parallel to and measure the learners' ability to perform what he/she described
in the objectives. Major emphasis is placed on relating the kind of behavior
described in the objectives to what the assessment requires.
6) Develop Instructional Strategy
Based on information from the five preceding steps, identify the strategy
that the designer will use in his/her instruction to achieve the terminal objective.
The strategy will include sections on pre-instructional activities, presentation of
information, practice and feedback, testing, and follow-through activities. The
strategy will be based on current theories of learning and results of learning
research, the characteristics of the medium that will be used to deliver the
instruction, content to be taught, and the characteristics of the learners who will
receive the instruction. These features are used to develop or select materials or to
develop a strategy for interactive classroom instruction.
7) Develop and Select Instructional Materials
In this step the teacher will use his/her instructional strategy to produce the
instruction. This typically includes a learner's manual, instructional materials, and
tests. (It is used here the term instructional materials including all forms of
instruction such as instructor's guides, student modules, overhead transparencies,
learning). The decision to develop original materials will depend on the type of
learning to be taught, the availability of existing relevant materials, and
developmental resources available to the teacher. Criteria for selecting from
among existing materials are provided.
8) Design and Conduct the Formative Evaluation of Instruction
Following the completion of a draft of the instruction, a series of
evaluations is conducted to collect data that are used to identify how to improve
the instruction. The three types of formative evaluation are referred to as one-to-
one evaluation, small-group evaluation, and field evaluation. Each type of
evaluation provides the designer with a different type of information that can be
used to improve the instruction. Similar techniques can be applied to the formative
evaluation of existing materials or classroom instruction.
9) Revise Instruction
The final step (and the first step in a repeat cycle) is revising the
instruction. Data from the formative evaluation are summarized and interpreted to
attempt to identify difficulties experienced by learners in achieving the objectives
and relate these difficulties to specific deficiencies in the instruction. It is
necessary to reexamine statements of performance objectives and test items in
light of collected data. The instructional strategy is reviewed and finally all this is
incorporated into revisions of the instruction to make it a more effective
instructional tool.
10) Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
Although summative evaluation is the culminating evaluation of the
effectiveness of instruction, it generally is not a part of the design process. It is an
evaluation of the absolute and/ or relative value or worth of the instruction and
occurs only after the instruction has been formatively evaluated and sufficiently
revised to meet the standards of the designer. Since the summative evaluation
usually does not involve the designer of the instruction but instead involves an
independent evaluator, this component is not considered an integral part of the
instructional design process.
The diagram of Dick and Carey’s instructional design model is elaborated
Figure 2: Dick and Carey’s Instructional Design Model (Dick and Carey, 1990: xx)
2. Reading
In this part, the writer discusses the nature of reading, reading purposes,
the abilities and skills involved in the process of learning to read, the basic
principles of reading and the stages in teaching reading to the fifth grade students.
Assess needs to identify goal(s)
Conduct instructional analysis
Develop and select instructional materials
Develop assessment instruments
Revise instruction
Develop instructional strategy
Design and conduct summative evaluation
Write performance objectives Analyze learners and contexts
Design and conduct formative evaluation of
a. The Nature of Reading
Reading is above all to do with the language, because in reading we meet
all the components of the language such as vocabulary, grammar, and even the
pronunciation. Reading is also form of communication; it becomes the base of
spoken language because reading turns the collection of symbols in a piece of
paper into ‘talk’, or in the case of silent reading, into an image of speech sound
(Moyle, 1972: 21-25).
Moyle also argues that reading involves the recognition of the important
elements of meaning in their essential relations, including accuracy and
comprehension. In reading, the readers are expected not only to understand the
message of the author, but also to reflect upon it, assess its value by comparing
with previously learned concepts and eventually to reach out in our imagination to
new realms as a result of the stimulus of the text.
Another opinion about reading is also given by Wardhaugh, which is
quoted in Dubin’s article. He says that reading is an active process in which the
reader must take an active contribution for drawing upon and using currently
various abilities he has acquired (Forum, 1982: 15). People think while they read.
In this activity the brain works, while it is responding to the text.
Herr strengthens this idea as it is quoted from a book entitled Study is
Hard Work (Amstrong, 1967: 35):
This study deals with teaching reading to children, and according to
Wallace (2003: 4) one of the difficulties which young children may have is the
ability to understand what is read. It is because they still have limited knowledge
of English, especially the vocabulary mastery. If we wish our children to read with
understanding, to evaluate and also to think creatively as a result of their reading,
the children must see a purpose in and gain enjoyment from reading from the
earliest moments of instruction. The children must also realize how useful the skill
of English in the real world by being placed in the situations where reading is
essential to the completion of the activity, in other word they must read for a
purpose to fulfill their needs. When this happens they will see reading as relevant
and essential to their daily life.
b. Reading Purposes
According to Wallace (2003: 6-7) any mode of language, listening,
speaking, reading, and writing, may be used to serve immediate needs, to learn
from, or to give us pleasure in language for its own sake. An important feature
that reading also shares with other modes of language use is the role in social
interaction. Here are types of reading based on its purposes.
1) Reading for Survival
Reading for survival means reading conducted to respond the
environment. Survival reading serves immediate needs or wishes. For example the
words ‘exit’ in the cinema door, ‘ladies’ or ‘gentleman’ in the lavatory door.
backgrounds, related to the way they perceive their day-to-day needs and interest,
from such sources as television, advertising, and street signs.
2) Reading for Learning
Besides as reading for survival, reading also serves the wider role of
extending our general knowledge of the world. This is called reading for learning.
Talking about reading for learning, it must be related with school, because a good
deal of reading to support learning clearly takes place in academic contexts.
3) Reading for Pleasure
Different from reading for survival which involves an immediate response,
and reading for learning which is goal oriented, reading for pleasure is done for its
own sake. It is optional whether people want to do it or not. The main purpose of
learning to read is ‘so that you can stop’. It means that people do it for their
pleasure; there is no pressure not to stop reading until finish the whole reading
passage. An important thing to consider in reading for pleasure is fluency.
c. The Abilities and Skills Involved in the Process of Learning to Read
According to Moyle (1972: 42-68) learning to read is a complex cognitive
task demanding a high level of integration and maturity of a wide variety of
abilities and skills. The manner in which reading takes place will vary according
to the type of material being read and the purpose for which it is being read. The
materials and the purposes suggest certain approaches to the individual reading
task which will be more economical and efficient than others.
From the beginning of reading the child should be provided with the
the clues available to extract and consider the content expressed. Besides
considering the materials and the purpose, it is also necessary to consider about
the abilities and skills involved in learning to read.
1) Intelligence
It deals with the ability to understand and comprehend the reading, and of
course it is relative measurement because each person has his or her own
intelligence degree. However, the most important thing in learning reading is not
the intelligence but the mental development. Mental development here means the
maturity of the children who learn. The mental condition and the maturity of the
children will help them in learning because they can be used as the guide in
assessing a child’s reading ability.
2) Language Facility
It is clear that we cannot expect the young children to read from a book
words which are outside their experience. When fluency in reading is attained
then the children can use their ability to interpret context in order to enlarge their
vocabulary and understanding but until this point is reached their reading material
must be constructed from words which are within their own spoken vocabulary.
It is obvious that good language development is important to good reading,
for a good vocabulary and the ability to use language is basic to the process of
learning to read. Language facility is closely related to the general ability on the
one hand but on the other hand is very much open to the effects of the
Children’s language facility becomes one of the most important factors in
readiness for reading instruction, and for the relationship between the
understanding of words and reading achievement. There are two factors which are
important to create an atmosphere which will stimulate and encourage language
growth in children. First, the classroom must be interesting, or even exciting place
for them. Children have a natural curiosity and if it is fostered by a good supply of
attractive objects and pictures then they will observe and wish to conserve.
Second, the teacher must give the children the opportunity to speak freely
among themselves and also to the teacher and their classmate. However, the
teacher must not only provide encouragement and permissive atmosphere, the
teacher must also create an interesting situation which help the children to use
their language and powers of constructive thought so that it will encourage the
development of the children.
3) Visual Abilities
Children ability to read is obviously closely related with the quality of
their sight. How the children can read if their quality of the sight is not good. The
teacher task is to make sure that the children have already visited the doctor or
optician to check their eyes.
4) Auditory Abilities
The children’s contact with the language during their early years comes
entirely through the sense of hearing. If for some reasons the children’s hearing is
imperfect then their language growth will be delayed and their ability to
The hearing of language and perception of language sounds are going to aid
reading in the following ways.
a) To build up a vocabulary.
b) To act as further aid to memorization and therefore to the recognition of the
printed words.
c) To enable us to hear the constituent sounds of which our words are
constructed and use these sounds upon the new words we meet. Growth in
reading attainment is largely dependent on the ability to attack a word which
has not been met before in print. In order to do this the children must
understand that.
d) Each word has its own sound pattern.
e) This sound pattern can be broken down into a series of sounds which are
arranged in a definite sequence.
f) These sounds correspond to letter shapes or the combination of letter shapes.
5) Physical Factors.
Physical factors deal with the physical condition of the children. Children
who have good physical condition will have more powers and energy to
concentrate to the lesson rather than those who have a problem with their physical
condition, such as malnutrition or insufficient rest. The children who have a good
6) Environmental Influences
One way to help the language development is by stimulating atmosphere at
home where the children can explore and converse with parents who encourage
their experiments and curiosity.
Atmosphere at the children home also influences the ability of the children
to become good readers. A research found that the percentage of poor readers
coming from homes with a low socio-economic status is much higher that for the
good readers. It is necessary to have a reasonable background of material
provision in order to maintain a good reading progress. Moreover, the happy
relationship between children and their parents is more important because parents
are the one who provide interest, stimulation, and sympathy when difficulties
arise.
7) Emotional Factors
Emotional factors seem to allow a division into two types under the
headings of attitudes to read on the one hand and general personality problems on
the other. Motivation is the most important factor in learning how to read. To
build motivation is not an easy thing to do; it needs a long process demanding
concentration and interest over a number of years before real fluency in the
medium level is achieved.
d. The Basic Principles of Reading
According to Moyle (1972: 101-107) the basic principles of a good
reading must be based and viewed firstly from the point of view of the nature of
their stage of development. There are some of the basic principles for a good
reading.
1) Reading should be formed as natural unit of the children’s development as
possible
The whole reading activities must be done as natural as possible so that the
children ability to communicate will develop naturally. If the reading is to be an
activity which appears natural to the children then any instruction given or
attainment expected should be firmly based in knowledge and understanding of
the children abilities and interests.
2) Reading as an integral part of other activities
The children must be led to an understanding that reading is useful and
important. To make the children understand that reading is an integral part of
other activities, the teacher must create activities which are interesting and can
build their curiosity so that the children will enjoy the class and finally they will
realize that reading is also an integral part of other activities.
3) Reading instructional should be attractive to the children
Young children love to talk and enjoy listening to the stories because for
them it is interesting. One way to reduce the difficulties in learning to read is the
teacher must create an instruction which is interesting so that it can attract the
children to learn to read.
4) All reading should be meaningful
The children should understand what they read, because how the children
content of a reading text. The teacher task here is to provide a reading passage
which has meaning.
5) Word recognition skills cannot be ignored
Besides ensuring that the reading must be enjoyable, the teacher must also
ensure that the reading activities also integrate with other work, fit to the interest
of the children. One thing that should be remembered is that the reading
instructions must be presented in a various ways and attractive manner so that the
children curiosity will arise.
6) Instruction should lead increasingly to independence in reading
The teacher must make sure that the more the children read, the more they
should be able to read without any help. One of the ways is by giving them
various level of difficulty in every reading text in every meeting.
7) Every activity must be related to the whole scheme
Any activity which the children do must be suitable with the aims of
reading programs as a whole and hope for the future development.
8) Progress through the reading programs must be kept under review
The teacher will find difficulty in measuring what students have achieved
in reading development. There is also a problem in keeping the programs in line
with the individual strengths and weaknesses of the children. To solve the
problems the teacher must administer some form of standardized test as a tool of
e. The Stages in Teaching Reading
There are three stages in teaching reading. The first stage is pre-reading
activities. The second is the main reading or whist reading activities, and the last
stage is post-reading activities.
1) Pre-reading Activities
According to Durkin (1987: 423), the purposes of the pre-reading activities
are to enable the learners to read a selection silently, independently, and also to
interest them in doing the reading activities. There are four things that are
necessary to do. There are teaching new vocabulary, providing essential
background information, establishing a purpose (s) for the reading, and motivating
the children to want to do the reading, (Durkin, 1987: 423-429).
a) Teaching New Vocabulary
The purpose of teaching the new vocabulary is to facilitate comprehension
for the students. There are two reasons why children abandon their assignments.
The first reason is that they are immature, and the second reason is that they think
that the reading activity is an impossible task, maybe because it is too difficult for
them. That is why, before the teacher starts the reading activities, it is better for
them to teach new vocabulary to the learners in order to prepare the students with
adequate vocabulary, so that they can do the reading task.
b) Providing Essential Background Information
After teaching the new vocabulary, the next thing to do is providing
essential background information. The purpose of providing essential background
vocabulary is not enough to prepare the students. The teacher must give some
background information of some parts in the reading texts to the students, so that
the students are able to visualize and imagine the real condition, shape, or even
taste. This activity will help the students who have problem with the new words.
c) Establishing a Purpose (s) for the Reading
The natural way to begin preparing children to read a selection about a
given topic, for example: health, sickness, family, is to find out what the children
already know about it. The purpose of knowing the students’ existing knowledge
is to allow the teachers to learn not only what is not known that is important but
also what is known that is inaccurate. There are three procedures in knowing the
students existing knowledge, they are: discuss with the students what they know
about the topic presented in the materials, have them read the selection in order to
learn what the author says about it and compare the two bodies of information
once the reading has been done. After the teachers figuring out what the students
already know, the next thing to do is to establish the purpose (s) of the reading.
d) Motivating the Children to Want it Do the Reading
There are four clues that can be used to make the students to be interested
in doing the reading activities. They are: children are most interested in what is
little, but not too familiar. It means that children interested in something new
which is not too much and complicated, and it is quite strange for them. These
points to value of making explicit what is in a selection that relates to what they
know or have experienced. The second, interest in reading a selection is
doing the reading activities. The third, interest is also increased when the teachers
display an honest concern for children’s idea and opinions about something that is
in selection. The last is at times, titles and pictures will make the children
interested.
2) Whilst Reading Activities
Whilst reading is the main part of the reading activities. In this, the
students use all the new vocabulary and background information, so that is why
the teachers must make sure that the preparation in the pre-reading activities
allows the students to read the entire selection on their own.
The activities in the whilst reading must support the attainment of the
purpose (s) which has been stated before, and the activities should contain the new
vocabulary and background information which are taught before. In the whilst
reading activities, the students do all the reading activities, such as read the text,
answering the questions, completing the paragraphs, arranging the paragraphs.
After the students finish the activities the teachers have to make sure that the
students have achieved the purpose (s) of the reading activities.
3) Post-reading Activities
There are two things that should be checked in the post reading activities.
They are the new vocabulary, and the realization of the purposes for reading.
a) Checking on the New Vocabulary
The important of this checking on the new vocabulary is to see whether the
methodology, and to make sure whether the students were able to use some
combination of the words contextually and structurally on their own.
b) Checking on the Realization of Purposes for Reading
The teachers must make sure that the students can accomplish the reading
tasks well and achieve the purpose (s) in the reading activities, if not the teachers
must create new reading texts or even activities that can support the attainment of
the purpose (s).
3. The Nature of the Fifth Grade Students of the Elementary Schools
To create materials which are appropriate to the subjects, clear concepts
about the subjects are needed. The presentation of clear concepts about the
subjects can give a clear description of the research subjects and avoid
misinterpretation in this research. Therefore, it is very important to have
appropriate knowledge on the fifth grade students of elementary schools to be
used in this research.
a. Children’s Cognitive Development
To have better understanding on children’s cognitive development,
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory might be considered. According to Piaget
there are four stages of children’s cognitive development.
1) Sensorimotor : From zero to two years children
2) Preoperational : From two to seven years children
4) Formal Operation : From eleven to sixteen years children
(in Smith & Lostherman, 1979: 94)
Based on Piaget’s theory, the fifth grade students of elementary schools
are at the end of concrete operational (7 – 11 years) stage and at the beginning of
formal operational (11 – 16 years) stage. In concrete operational stage, children
begin to use language as means to express their thoughts or ideas. However, the
presence of concrete things will give the children best result. While in formal
operational stage, children begin to work with abstract things. It means that
children are able to create hypothesis to find the solution of the problems.
The ability of children to work in abstract things enables them to find their
own way of learning. Children make their own path into the unknown path that we
would never think of making for them, when they learn what they are curious
about, children go faster, cover more territory than we would ever think of trying
to mark out for them or making them covert (Holt, 1980: 152). It is wiser to let the
children to experience learning activities based on their way. Although,
sometimes, their activities are not understood by adults, their own way can
perform the better one.
Since children are not adults, they have different ways of thinking.
Sometimes adults’ learning method is useless when applied to children. Piaget
believes that children have their own methods in learning in which, sometimes,
perform a better result. The theory points out that children learn better by moving
and manipulating than by sitting and listening, they understand by experimenting
Therefore, it is not wise to expect children to learn as well as adults do since they
do not think like adults.
The knowledge of students’ stages may help teachers in setting the
teaching materials and activities properly. The teachers can set activities and
materials that can facilitate students to express their ideas or thoughts through a
language. Since children have been ready to deal with abstract things, the teachers
can present activities and materials that involve abstract things.
b. Foreign Language Learning for Children
In general, children are in the right time to learn a language other than the
first language (the mother tongue). A psychologist, Purwo (1995), says the age of
6-12 years old is the right age to learn English other than the first language (in
Yahya, 1999: 52). According to Purwo (1995), a new language can be taught to
children because of their ages.
Another Scientist, Shovel (1987), says that second language learning for
children occurs naturally. He says that the plastically of the brain prior the puberty
enables children to acquire not only the first language but also their second or
foreign language, or at least to acquire native-like pronunciation (in Brown, 1994:
43). In their age, children can learn not only their first language, but also another
language.
Lenneberg (1987) also believes that second language learning will bring
more satisfying result when experienced before the puberty. Language
development begins freezing when approaching the puberty (in Yahya, 1999: 55).
Therefore, children are able to acquire more than one language because of
their nature. Because of their ages, 6 to 12 years old, children have more flexible
brains to learn a new language or second language. This assumption will help the
teachers of elementary schools to teach English. The process of learning might go
faster because the children themselves are ready and capable to learn.
Children’s reading in foreign language is given rather late. It is commonly
believe that reading can perform a maximal result after the children are able to
speak. Some educators believe that reading should be introduced after children
acquire how to say words of the foreign language (Poulston & Bruder, 1976: 162).
Poulston and Bruder believe that children’s oral mastery of target language is
needed to be able to read.
Lado mentions a different opinion. He says that although it is possible to
learn to speak without reading, it seems a more effective strategy to learn to read
simultaneously with learning to speak (Lado, 1972: 451-454). On the contrary,
Lado says that there is no problem if reading is introduced in the first day. The
teachers do not need to wait until the children are able to say words to introduce
reading.
However, the methods for teaching reading for children should be selected
and used carefully. An appropriate method can help children to learn reading, on
the other hand, an inappropriate method can reduce children’ motivation. Many
experts and educators give their best to find methods in which the children can
through fun methods children can and want to learn reading. It is very important
to ensure the children that reading is fun.
4. Curriculum 2006
Curriculum is a set of plan and rules of goal, content, lesson, and also steps
as the basic of teaching and learning process for achieving certain education
purposes. Curriculum is designed to achieve the national goal on education with
attention on the development steps of students and to the compatibility with
environment, the needs of national development, the development of science and
technology and art, the compatibility with type and level of each instructional
unit.
KTSP is operational curriculum composed and done by each of education
unit. Considering that every region in Indonesia has its specific needs, the
government creates a local content curriculum. The local content curriculum
provides some subjects that are needed by students in relation with the local
community’s need.
The local content curriculum is not a central education implementation so
each region will be able to improve the relevant to the condition and needs of the
related region. The selection of English as a local content in curriculum 2006 is
based on the 2005 Government Regulation number 19 about the national
education standard. The government states that it is needed to develop standard
characteristics of the involved lesson plan without decreasing the curriculum in
effect nationally and diverging from the objective of national education.
The subjects in local content curriculum are not compulsory subject. Every
school has its own right to choose which subject is suitable to its students. English
is a compulsory subject at the elementary school. The function of English subject
at the elementary school is to introduce English as the first foreign language in
Indonesia. The purpose of teaching English at the elementary school is to motivate
and to prepare the students in order to be ready and confident in learning English
at the higher level of education.
English at the elementary school involves pronunciation, vocabulary,
spelling, reading and functional skills as the basic to master a simple language
skill which is in line with the topic.
5. Using Games to Teach English to Elementary School Students
It is commonly believed that games are a common interesting activity. As
stated by Hidayat (1980) that basically, every human, no matter how old they are,
their sex, and their social status, like games (Hidayat, 1980: 1). In this study,
games are rolled as an activity that can be used and enjoyed by every one.
Therefore, games are possible to be used in the classrooms.
a. The Concept of Games in Education
The use of games in language teaching gives mainly attention to generate
and to improve students’ motivation. The function of games in classroom is to
1996: 3). Games can be an engine for the students to increase their motivation to
learn.
The teachers can use games to help them to reduce boring atmosphere in
the classroom. Ann says that games, in the field of language teaching, have helped
to make the task of learning less boring and tedious (in Khoo, 1981: 8). In
teaching children boring atmosphere is created very often. It is because the
teachers cannot keep the children’s focus and attention to the lessons. The use of
games in teaching may reduce this unwanted atmosphere.
To be motivating games, fun and competition aspect can be involved.
Atmosphere of competition in language games can give more values to the
students. Stephens says that the emphasis should be on keeping competition
within reasonable bounds. It would be foolish and unnecessary to try to eliminate
competition completely. It provides zest and pleasant challenge (Stephens, 1966:
393). Stephens puts competitions as part of games that make them interesting and
motivating. If the students are motivated, they will focus their attention to the
class activities.
b. The Definition of Games
Not all games can be used to teach language in class. Language games
have some requirements. Chamberlain, in a book of Guideline for Language
Games, mentions that language games should be motivating, easy to explain, and
having language learning (in Khoo, 1981: 28). These requirements are needed
since language games are different from ordinary games. They have functions to
Bumpass gives more detailed requirements about language games.
Bumpass’ idea is almost the same with Chamberlain’s idea. Games that can be
used for language teaching, called language games, are fast moving, competitive,
acceptable by students, simple enough, motivating, and having definite learning
objective in it (Bumpass, 1963: 143-144). These requirements above are needed,
so that the games are applicable and helpful for the teachers to obtain the teaching
objective.
Bell presents a little bit difference of requirements needed by language
games. He states that educational game presents concrete problems in a simplified
but dramatic form (Bell, 1985: xix). Bell men