ABSTRACT
Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
The fact that an English learning program is provided to equip college students with English skills poses several problems since every university, even every study program, likely has its own system. One of them is mainly because of the subjective judgements of the study program chairperson or English instructor. The effect is the different amount of the time allocation in every major. Some allocate only 2 credits, others 8 credits, or even more, depending on the regular or intensive courses, and considering the learning components, such as the learning strategy, material, media, and assessment. This may cause difficulties in a probable language learning program. Among these problems, one of the solutions is to provide an acceptable material that is arranged based on the language that needs to be acquired. The basic assumptions of the materials can be divided into three levels: general English, general academic English, and specific academic English.
In order to solve the problem of supporting the English learning process in college, this research aims to produce a learning model for the first level, i.e. college general English. The general English course is needed to provide the students with pre-academic English before they have English for academic and specific purposes. Thus, the problem discussed in this study is what is the acceptable product of the text-based college general English?
In order to answer the research question, the researcher employed ADDIE model for the instructional design. The researcher also adopted Borg’s and Gall’s R&D model as the research methodology. Interviews and questionnaires were conducted to determine the asumed needs and get validation from experts and users. The data were in the forms of quantitative and qualitative data. Due to the time constraints, the designed learning model was only verified with the students and instructor, and not disseminated to the public. The research was done in Duta Wacana Christian University and Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta. Both were chosen randomly.
text and learns the used language expressions. Let’s practice is activity in which the students construct a text. Finally, in Express yourself, students produce the text individually. The result showed that the product was acceptable by the mean score above 4.00 out of 5. Therefore, when it is completed, the course is more transferable. The students and instructors more focus on the process of acquiring an English competence, so that the product is more valid and reliable.
ABSTRAK
Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Fakta bahwa program pembelajaran bahasa Inggris diselenggarakan untuk membekali mahasiswa dengan kemampuan bahasa Inggris menimbulkan beberapa masalah karena universitas, bahkan setiap program studi, memungkinkan untuk memiliki sistem tersendiri. Salah satu penyebabnya juga dikarenakan keputusan subyektif dari ketua program atau dosen pengampu, sehingga membuat alokasi waktu yang diberikan berbeda. Beberapa program studi menyediakan 2 SKS sedangkan yang lain lebih dari 2 SKS, tergantung apakah program dilaksanakan secara intensif atau reguler dan mempertimbangkan komponen lain seperti fasilitas, media, strategi, dan penilaian pembelajaran. Diantara permasalahan tersebut, salah satu solusi yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan menyediakan sebuah pembelajaran yang bisa diterima dari segi waktu dan materi. Asumsi dasar dari materi yang dapat disediadakan dapat digolongkan menjadi 3 tingkatan, antara lain general English, general academic English, dan specific academic English.
Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti memutuskan untuk membuat model pembelajaran pada tinkat yang pertama, yaitu college general English. Bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa dibutuhkan untuk membekali mahasiswa sebelum mereka belajar bahasa Inggris untuk tujuan yang lebih khusus. Maka dari itu, permasalahan pokok dalam penelitian ini adalah seperti apakah produk pembelajaran bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa yang dapat diterima?
Peneliti menggunakan ADDIE model dalam menjawab permasahan tersebut. Sedangkan dalam metodologi, peneliti mengadopsi teori Borg dan Gall tentang Research dan Development. Wawancara dan kuesioner dilakukan untuk mengetahui kebutuhan dan memperoleh evaluasi dari para ahli dan calon pengguna model pembelajaran. Peneliti hanya melakukan try-out kepada satu kelas dan produk tidak diseminasikan karena keterbatasan waktu. Penelitian dilakukan di Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana dan Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta.
i
A TEXT-BASED LEARNING MODEL
FOR COLLEGE GENERAL ENGLISH
A THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree
in English Language Studies
by
Christina Eli Indriyani 146332044
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to those who have given their contribution for the completion of this thesis.
My deepest gratitude is dedicated to Jesus Christ who has granted me his blessing for keeping me strong during the process of completing my thesis.
I would like to thank English Language Studies Graduate Program for giving me a big opportunity to receive the scholarship so that I could learn and get experiences during my study. In particular, I thank Dr. J. Bismoko, who has given her sincere guidance for shaping my ideas, reading my thesis, and checking my grammar.
My deepest gratitude is addressed to Paulus Widiatmoko, S.Pd., M.A., Mega Wulandari, S.Pd., M.Hum., and Luluk Iswati, S.Pd.,M.Hum., who were willing to give comments and sugestions on my designed learning model. I also thank my academic advisor and reviewer, F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. and Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., for giving me advice and support during my study. I would also like to appreciate all of the English Language Studies Graduate Program lecturers, secretariat staff, especially Mbak Marni and Pakde Mul, and all of the librarians.
It was my pleasure to have a good cooperation with the big family of English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University and Introduction to College English (ICE) Duta Wacana Christian University.
My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents, Petrus Triyono and Fransisca Suparmi, for their great love. I also thank my lovely brothers, Rm. Tri Margono, Pr. and Mas Budi, my lovely sisters, Evi and Sr. Yeni, CB., for their continued encouragement and prayer.
I would like to mention the Mangun family and the Parto family, especially my cousin, Mbak Septi, for helping me many times and many ways. I really enjoyed my time with them.
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beloved friends in 9C, especially Bu Byti, Fitri, Ita, Lina, Intan, Asri, Fani, Yani, Mbing, Dera, Arin and Mega for their kindness, friendship, and support.
It will take a lot of pages to mention everyone who has given his/her contribution to my thesis. For those who have not been mentioned, I do acknowledge my sincere thanks. God bless you all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iii
DEDICATION PAGE ... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF TABLES ... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xiv
ABSTRACT ... xv
ABSTRAK ... xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... ... 1
A.Research Background ... 1
B.Problem Identification ... 6
C.Problem Limitation ... 8
D.Research Questions ... 9
E. Product Specification ... 9
F. Research Objectives ... 10
G.Research Benefits ... 10
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ... 12
A.Theoretical Review ... 12
1. College General English ... 12
a. English For International Communication ... 15
b. English Learning Program In Indonesia ... 18
c. General English ... 19
d. English Proficiency ... 21
2. Text-Based Learning ... 24
a. Needs Analysis ... 26
b. Course Design ... 26
c. Planning Units of Works ... 32
3. The Four Strands ... 35
a. Learning Through Listening and Reading ... 35
b. Learning Through Speaking and Writing ... 36
c. Language-Focused Learning ... 36
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4. Instructional Design ... 38
a. ADDIE Model ... 38
b. Dick and Carey Model ... 41
c. Kathleen Graves Model ... 43
5. Product Acceptability ... 48
a. Validity of the Product ... 49
b. Reliability of the Product ... 50
c. Practicality of the Product ... 51
B.Characteristics of Prospective Users ... 52
C.Related Research Reports ... 53
D.Theoretical Framework ... 55
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ... 61
A.Research Goal and Method ... 62
1. Analysis ... 63
2. Design ... 61
3. Development ... 64
4. Implementation ... 65
5. Evaluation ... 65
B.Research Data ... 66
C.Data Gathering Instruments ... 68
1. Interview ... 68
2. Questionnaire ... 69
D.Data Analysis and Interpretation ... 75
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS ... 78
A.Process of Designing the Model ... 78
1. Analysis ... 78
2. Design ... 92
3. Development ... 98
a. Developing the Tentative Product ... 98
b. Preliminary Field Testing ... 101
c. Main Product Revision ... 105
4. Implementation ... 106
5. Evaluation ... 107
B.Presentation of the Model ... 112
1. Stage 1: What Do You Know? ... 112
2. Stage 2: Let’s Find Out ... 113
3. Stage 3: Let’s Practice ... 115
4. Stage 4: Express Yourself ... 116
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS ... 118
A.Conclusions ... 118
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xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Common Reference Levels ... 22
Table 2.2. The Characteristics of Text-Based Syllabus ... 27
Table 2.3. The Elements of Language ... 28
Table 2.4. The Families of Text-Types ... 29
Table 2.5. Checklist for Developing Units ... 33
Table 2.6. Information Gathered When Assessing Needs ... 46
Table 2.7. Considerations for Material Development ... 47
Table 3.1. The Blueprint for Students’ Needs Analysis ... 70
Table 3.2. Expert Validation Questionnaire Blueprint ... 71
Table 3.3. User Validation Questionnaire Blueprint ... 73
Table 3.4. Degree of Agreement ... 75
Table 3.5. The Score Interpretation ... 76
Table 3.6. The Item Improvement ... 77
Table 4.1. Students’ Responses of Item 1-10 ... 84
Table 4.2. Students’ responses of item 11-16 ... 85
Table 4.3. Students’ Responses of Item 17-29 ... 88
Table 4.4. Students’ Responses of Items 30-36 ... 89
Table 4.5. Formulation of the Learning Objectives ... 94
Table 4.6. List of Sequenced Learning Objectives and Topics ... 96
Table 4.7. Description of Preliminary Field Testing Respondents ... 101
Table 4.8. Results of Expert Validation ... 102
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. The Changing Nature of the Collaboration Between Teacher
And Student in Response To Learner Progress ... 30
Figure 2.2. Stages of the Teaching and Learning Cycle ... 31
Figure 2.3. ADDIE Instructional Model ... 41
Figure 2.4. Dick and Carey Model ... 42
Figure 2.5. A Framework of Course Development Processes ... 44
Figure 2.6. The Conceptual Model ... 57
Figure 2.7. The Unit Contents of the Iconic Model ... 60
Figure 3.1. The Flowchart of the Combination of R&D Cycle and ADDIE Model ... 66
Figure 4.1. What do you know? ... 113
Figure 4.2. Let’s find out ... 114
Figure 4.3. Let’s practice ... 115
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Interview Guideline ... 128
Appendix 2 Needs Analysis Questionnaire ... 129
Appendix 3 Sample of Syllabus ... 132
Appendix 4 Needs Analysis Questionnaire Results ... 148
Appendix 5 Interview Results ... 153
Appendix 6 Syllabus ... 159
Appendix 7 Product ... 168
Appendix 8 Transcript ... 216
Appendix 9 Facebook Group ... 217
Appendix 10 Expert Validation Questionnaire ... 218
Appendix 11 User Validation Questionnaire ... 221
Appendix 12 The Result of Expert Validation ... 225
Appendix 13 The Result of User Validation ... 228
xv ABSTRACT
Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
The fact that an English learning program is provided to equip college students with English skills poses several problems since every university, even every study program, likely has its own system. One of them is mainly because of the subjective judgements of the study program chairperson or English instructor. The effect is the different amount of the time allocation in every major. Some allocate only 2 credits, others 8 credits, or even more, depending on the regular or intensive courses, and considering the learning components, such as the learning strategy, material, media, and assessment. This may cause difficulties in a probable language learning program. Among these problems, one of the solutions is to provide an acceptable material that is arranged based on the language that needs to be acquired. The basic assumptions of the materials can be divided into three levels: general English, general academic English, and specific academic English.
In order to solve the problem of supporting the English learning process in college, this research aims to produce a learning model for the first level, i.e. college general English. The general English course is needed to provide the students with pre-academic English before they have English for academic and specific purposes. Thus, the problem discussed in this study is what is the acceptable product of the text-based college general English?
In order to answer the research question, the researcher employed ADDIE model for the instructional design. The researcher also adopted Borg’s and Gall’s R&D model as the research methodology. Interviews and questionnaires were conducted to determine the asumed needs and get validation from experts and users. The data were in the forms of quantitative and qualitative data. Due to the time constraints, the designed learning model was only verified with the students and instructor, and not disseminated to the public. The research was done in Duta Wacana Christian University and Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta. Both were chosen randomly.
The final result was a course book named College Just Ahead. The conceptual model was based on the some underlying theories. The provided materials were designed to achieve epistemic level, in which students are able to transform knowledge in certain language. Thus, reading, listening, writing, and
xvi
students construct a text. Finally, in Express yourself, students produce the text individually. The result showed that the product was acceptable by the mean score above 4.00 out of 5. Therefore, when it is completed, the course is more transferable. The students and instructors more focus on the process of acquiring an English competence, so that the product is more valid and reliable.
xvii
ABSTRAK
Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Fakta bahwa program pembelajaran bahasa Inggris diselenggarakan untuk membekali mahasiswa dengan kemampuan bahasa Inggris menimbulkan beberapa masalah karena universitas, bahkan setiap program studi, memungkinkan untuk memiliki sistem tersendiri. Salah satu penyebabnya juga dikarenakan keputusan subyektif dari ketua program atau dosen pengampu, sehingga membuat alokasi waktu yang diberikan berbeda. Beberapa program studi menyediakan 2 SKS sedangkan yang lain lebih dari 2 SKS, tergantung apakah program dilaksanakan secara intensif atau reguler dan mempertimbangkan komponen lain seperti fasilitas, media, strategi, dan penilaian pembelajaran. Diantara permasalahan tersebut, salah satu solusi yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan menyediakan sebuah pembelajaran yang bisa diterima dari segi waktu dan materi. Asumsi dasar dari materi yang dapat disediadakan dapat digolongkan menjadi 3 tingkatan, antara lain general English, general academic English, dan specific academic English.
Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti memutuskan untuk membuat model pembelajaran pada tinkat yang pertama, yaitu college general English. Bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa dibutuhkan untuk membekali mahasiswa sebelum mereka belajar bahasa Inggris untuk tujuan yang lebih khusus. Maka dari itu, permasalahan pokok dalam penelitian ini adalah seperti apakah produk pembelajaran bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa yang dapat diterima?
Peneliti menggunakan ADDIE model dalam menjawab permasahan tersebut. Sedangkan dalam metodologi, peneliti mengadopsi teori Borg dan Gall tentang Research dan Development. Wawancara dan kuesioner dilakukan untuk mengetahui kebutuhan dan memperoleh evaluasi dari para ahli dan calon pengguna model pembelajaran. Peneliti hanya melakukan try-out kepada satu kelas dan produk tidak diseminasikan karena keterbatasan waktu. Penelitian dilakukan di Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana dan Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta.
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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter will provide the general explanations about the project justification, including validity and feasibility of this research. The introductory chapter contains several subheadings, those are Research Background, Problem Identification, Problem Limitation, Research Questions, Product Specification, Research Objectives, and Research Benefits. The research background gives the reasons why this research is necessary. Problem formulation, problem limitation, and research questions explain the technical limitation of the study and specify the questions that need to be answered. Product specification figures out the product that will be designed. Research benefits state the goal and advantages that will be achieved.
A.Research Background
another problem since every university, even every major, likely has a different system.
The different system was triggered whether the provided program has equality and the credits can be transferable among study programs or universities. In fact, the equality cannot be reached because there is no standard from the government that manages how the system works or whether it constitutes a compulsory subject. Consequently, autonomous system is applied. Furthermore, the transferable course is low because the policies are adjusted to the needs of every major and occasionally determined by the lecturers. The effects are the credits offered in every major might be different and the course might not be acknowledged. Therefore, such a program also triggers other problems which are related to college English learning complexities.
Another study related to English language learning was conducted by Souriyavongsa, Rany, Abidin, and Mei. The problem of this research was college students in Laos who have low English language learning due to several factors.
First, the English teachers are not well-trained; for instance, teachers uses Lao language when teaching so that they cannot perform well to attract the students’ interest. Second, students’ lack of English foundation background. Third, students’ lack of confidence to use English because they are afraid of making mistakes. Fourth, the curriculum is inappropriate for helping students to improve their English proficiency. Last but not least, English language is difficult to learn due to students are not well-motivated, encouraged and gained learning strategy. (Souriyavongsa, Rany, Abidin, Mei, 2013, p.180)
In learning English as a foreign language, college students are sometimes considered that they have had basic knowledge, so that universities only need to provide an English learning program based on students’ majors. However, the fact is far from what is expected. There are still many things to be improved in language learning program. For non-English speaking countries, such as India, Laos, and even Indonesia, in which English is one of the subjects at the university level, they still face difficulties in providing English learning programs, including how to determine the proficiency standard, curriculum, learning strategy, and developing material.
conducted by Baskara (2014) provided a learning model for intensive reading at the university level. The designed model adapted e-learning which allows the teachers to adapt materials to students’ needs and to connect with many web-resources so that the teachers may improve their creativity. Another study related to research and development is intended to design model of instructional vocabulary material through reading for college students (Nugraheni, 2014). The material is provided for the English class before the students prepare themselves for the working environment. In the study, reading is also considered as the appropriate aid in the learning process because the students are able to learn new information, especially about their field, through reading.
qualified students, even it should be flexible and adjustable to different standardization. The last condition relates to the management. Conducting a program needs good management and adequate budget to support the process, including the qualified facilities and human resources.
The basic assumptions of the materials can be divided into three fields; general English, general academic English, and specific academic English. In order to solve problems and improve the life quality, particularly supporting the English learning process in college, this research aims to produce a learning material model for college general English. The model constitutes an introductory course before students get English for academic purposes. The introductory course is needed to provide basic knowledge in English since English for specific academic purposes will be more complex. Although it is an alternative general English model, learning the general English will provide the bridge between what students have already known or what they have learned in high school and what they will get in college. The college general English model expects students to be able to communicate by using English in the future.
Different from the previous studies, this study is aimed to design a text-based learning model for college general English. If the previous study adapted the learning strategy as the basis to develop the learning model, this study will focus on text-based learning. The text-based learning, or known as the genre-based
learning, is defined as “a framework for language instruction” based on examples
meanings. Text-based learning enables learners to use the target language in ways familiar to them – with texts which are authentic, purposeful, and functional. Furthermore, Tingting (2011, p.7) stated “text-based learning implies that learning target language can be done through reading texts, such as acquiring words’
meaning and their typical language environment from texts”. This idea is also supported by Mickan (2012, p.21) who said that text-based instruction integrates spoken and written language as in natural language use. It is normal for people to combine reading and writing, just as listening and speaking occur together. He adds
that “working with texts integrates the skills to take advantage of multisensory text
experiences to enhance memorizing language.” Since the study utilizes text-based
learning, it does not mean that reading becomes the main skill to be improved, but the four skills are integrated. The text can be in form of receptive skills like reading and listening, productive skills like speaking and writing, or its combination. Therefore, when using texts in learning and teaching, a text can be as a linguistic object, a vehicle for information and a stimulus for production.
B.Problem Identification
The English learning material model for college general English has not come to meet its standard because the standard of one university might be different with another. The standard then is considered to the goals of the universities. Hence, most universities adopt standard which is commonly used, i.e. CEFR (Common European Framework References). CEFR describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively. The description also covers the cultural context in which language is set. The framework also defines levels of proficiency which allow learners’ progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis.
The universities provide English language program started from the earliest semester, even they conduct it as matriculation program. This introductory program focuses on general English in which the basic knowledge of English will be taught. The materials provided for general English are generally adopted from many books. The teachers might choose the materials and compile them. Thus, it is necessary to provide students with English learning material which can be adjustable especially for novice level students. The learning material model can be alternative to teach general English for college students in any universities or institutions.
learning model for college general English is chosen because it is pondered to answer the students’ needs which deal with the four skills, and any kinds of texts, both scientific and non-scientific. Therefore, regarding the demands of students’ competence and the importance of English skills to support students’ academic or future job, the students need to be provisioned with ability in spoken and written English.
C.Problem Limitation
In this study, the researcher determines some limitations in order to make constraints. First, the researcher focuses on research and development of designing a learning material model for college general English. Thus, there is no
experimental study conducted to measure students’ English competence after they
experience using the learning materials. It focuses on the development and validation of the learning material model.
Second, the developed learning material model is particularly for the novice level of university students. The researcher chooses the general English, as the matriculation program as well, because the materials are for the introductory course program for undergraduate students before they have English for Specific Purposes in every faculty. Students need to prepare it so that they get more inputs for better result. Therefore, the designed learning material constitutes an alternative to present an efficient product of English learning material for college students.
likely provided in written and spoken forms. The four skills like speaking, listening, reading, and writing, will be integrated.
D.Research Questions
In this research, the focus is on producing the iconic model based on the conceptual model. The conceptual model, which is the underlying theories, constitutes part of constructing the iconic model. The researcher proposes one question to be answered, and thus being the guideline to process the research and the writing. The question is what is the acceptable product of the text-based learning model for college general English?
E.Product Specifications
F. Research Objectives
There are two main objectives that will be achieved in this study. The first objective is to discover an acceptable model of the text-based learning model for college general English. That will be the final version of the iconic model which facilitates the college students to improve their reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills. Thus, the designed product also aims to indirectly boost college students to have efficiency of their English tasks before they have English for specific purposes and after their studies.
The second objective is to provide the conceptual model of text-based learning model for college general English. This also aims to discover the logical that leads the design of the product. The product is designed using text-based learning which employed the teaching and learning cycle (Feez and Joyce, 2002). In developing the model, the researcher combinces the steps in ADDIE model (Braxton, Bronico, and Looms, 2000, and Rodgers, 2002) and R and D model proposed by Borg and Gall (1983).
G.Research Benefits
This research is expected to be beneficial theoretically and practically. For theoretical benefit, the students and further researchers are expected to gain knowledge of the theory underlying this study. This study gives principles of text-based learning for teaching and learning process. This study also provides the theoretical concept in teaching general English that integrates the four skills.
Practically, this research produces iconic model which can be used for
also aims to benefit for the university, lecturers, and students. For the university, the product is expected to provide an English learning program that is more transferable in order to facilitate students in learning the language and to improve
students’ output during and after studies. For the lecturers, the product can be used to provide recommendation in teaching development and improve the learning efficiency. For college students, learning general English through the developed
12 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter discusses the theories supporting the study and answering the research questions in order to discover the conceptual model. It consists of four parts; Theoretical Review, Characteristics of Prospective Users, Related Research Reports, and Theoretical Framework. Theoretical review includes the relevant theories which are beneficial for analysis. Characteristics of prospective users figure out the logical answer to the general characterisitcs of population. Related research reports include any research that have beed conducted and its results. Theoretical framework describes the theoretical which will be employed in this study.
A.Theoretical Review
In this section, the the researcher tried to clarify the related concepts that will be used to design and develop the learning model. It contains the theory of college general English, English learning program in Indonesia, text-based learning, and instructional design.
1. College General English
(Wales, 1987, as cited in Competence Standard of Curriculum 2004 by National Education Department, 2003). After students graduate from high school, they are expected to reach informational level because they are also prepared to enter the university level. Therefore, English for college students has to achieve epistemic level, in which students are able to transform knowledge in certain language.
According to Yumei and Bang (2007), as cited by Zhu and Liao (2008, p.92),
teaching and learning is an “instructional paradigm” which the teacher transfers the
information in 45-or-50-minute lectures and the student receives it. In teaching and learning process, this linear process of information transfer and reception happens continously by using several teaching models. Yumei and Bang (2007), as cited by Zhu and Liao (2008), explain several teaching models frequently applied for general English teaching. One of them is PPP model. PPP stands for “presentati on-practice-production”. Presentation means introducing new material or grammatical structures through meaningful context. Then, at the Practice stage, various tasks are given to the students in order to reinforce what has been learnt. The last stage is Production. Students are given practice tasks less controlled by the teacher to link what is newly learnt with what has been learnt before.
by the teacher. Hints are always given to the students so they can find out and practice by themselves. Students are able to discuss what they learn with peer group. The last is production. Production is chance to students express their own idea. Students make a text based on topic that giving by the teacher, which aims to measure how far the students understand about the material. Regarding the proceses, it can be cocluded that student-centered approach is implemented in PPP. The teachers or instructors provide students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another. They also coach the students in the skills that need to learn.
According to Vystavelova (2009), there is an advantage of PPP model that leads to the student-centered approach. Using PPP, the lesson is easy to prepare because the material used for the lesson are ordered from the simplest to the most difficult. Types of activities are arranged from the most controlled to the feast controlled. Thus, this approach is relatively easy for beginner students or novice level students. In addition, Carless (2009) said that “low achieving students probably learn better through PPP”. The PPP has been referred to a teaching method; however, it can be utilized as a useful technique with a variety of teaching methodologies, such as the most common type communicative approach and text-based approach. In both approaches, students takes dominant role in the learning process. The scaffold given to the students is gradually decreased in order to be independent.
provide general overview. Learners are also engaged because the class will run smoothly if students have interests. Then, practice stage is also one way to activate learners. This step elaborates learners’ skill and observe how interaction happens in the class. After learners construct their text, performance time should be provided even in bigger portion if necessary. Assessment can be used to evaluate the process
and learners’ progress. Thus, the theory of learning model supports the researcher to design the learning materials.
Other theories that support the explanation about college general English will be elaborated into three parts. First, English for international communication discusses the importance and needs of English for international communication. Second, English for general purposes is to find out the general English for college students. The last is English proficiency, which aims to know the English proficiency level at the university level. The detailed explanation is as follows.
a. English for International Communication
In order to understand the idea of English for international communication, it is important to figure out English speakers in the world and define what is meant
by ‘world English’. The use of English in the world is not uniform. According to
Kachru (1985), as cited by Zacharias (2003, p.15), the speakers of English can be classified into three categories. Each category is represented through the concentric circles.
Based on those categories, Indonesia belongs to the expanding circle, in which English is only a foreign language. English as a world language is acknowledged important to be learnt. The English speakers have reached more than seven hundred million people. Thus, English is widely accepted as a global language, or in another
term ‘world English’. Zacharias (2003, p.20) stated that ‘English is used both in a
global sense for international communication between countries and in local sense as a language of wider communication within multilingual societies’. English function is to enable speakers share their ideas and cultures. English can also be connected to the cultures where the language is used.
In this study, the researcher began with the needs analysis. According to Richards et al (1992), needs analysis is
the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities...[it] makes use of both subjective and objective information. (cited by Jordan, 1997, p.20)
Needs analysis aims to find out the necessities, demands, wants, and lacks of the learners. It can be conducted through interview, observation, library research, and so on. Other approaches also have become parts of needs analysis; those are target- situation analysis, present-situation analysis, deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, and constraints (Jordan, 1997, p.22). The analysis forms the real or assumed needs that are actually appropriate for the learners. Furthermore, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2009, p.7) state that to begin a program should start from the end. What goal and how success look like should be determined and then gradually looked forward. The identification of the targeted behaviors that program graduates must
designed learning model and to dig out the importance of English for college students.
Regarding the needs for college students in learning English, the researcher comes up with English for international communication as part of students’ English mastery. Zacharias (2003, p.1) stated that “the development of English as an international language is observable throughout the world, from its increasing status in educational curricula to its role as the language of international business, tourism, news broadcasting, etc”. English for international communication may be associated with the role of a language that can be used in the entire world. The language also touches many fields that prevail human life, especially to get along, study, and work. English also influences many different cultures in a large number of countries. Thus, English can be called the central language for communication with the native and non-native speakers in the world-wide (Susanna, 2007).
b. English Learning Program in Indonesia
English has been learned by Indonesian students from primary school up to university level as a foreign language. At the university level, the English language learners are considered at advanced level since they have learned English for at least six years, and even more (Hendriani, 2013). In other words, the learners should have the ability to communicate in English actively. They are expected to be able to participate, initiate, sustain, and bring to closure a wide variety of communicative tasks, including those that require an increased ability with diverse language strategies, satisfying the requirements of schools and work situations, and narrating and describing connected discourse with paragraph-length (Richards, 2001). However, the expectation is not easy to be achieved. The English learning programs at the university level still need to be improved.
c. General English
General English is one of the keywords in this study. It refers to the use of English language in general or not in certain field. According to Far (2008, p.3), general English refers to contexts such as the school where needs cannot readily be specified. It is more usefully considered as providing a broad foundation rather than a detailed and selective specification of goals like ESP. According to Abbot (1981), as cited by Langham (2003, p.63), general English is also called TENOR, teaching English for no obvious reason. TENOR learners are generally classified as students whose motivation levels are low, and who have few specific needs. General English actually aims to help learners function effectively in their specific field of study. Dudley-Evans & St John (2000), as cited by Zohrabi (2010, p.168), explain that general English assists learners to fulfill their academic requirements in higher education. Learners are equipped with an efficient problem solving and solution-oriented way by attending to their specific needs. General English also tries to equip learners with necessary communicative skills and strategies to perform effectively at university and achieve their objectives.
Based on the learners and purpose of learning, in general English classes, the learners are vary from teenagers to adults and learning English language is the subject of the classes (Far, 2008, p.6). The learners who learn pre-academic English have had basic knowledge and at least have been familiar with English language. They learn English to be able to communicate in daily conversation and perhaps for professional skills. English, here, is perceived as a subject whose contexts and components, such as the vocabulary, grammar, expressions, and pronunciation, have to be learned. In this study, general English, which is for pre-academic English, is not limited to a particular discipline. It attempts to teach language system (vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation), study skills, and language skills and prepare the learners to tackle their university courses and communicate appropriately in their field. Furthermore, the instructional goals of general English are identified (Far, 2008, p.6). As a general rule, the four skills are equally provided. The skills must be integrated because the learners have to be provisioned with reading, listening, speaking, and writing, although it is still on the surface. In a typical class, there is concentration on teaching grammar and language structures. Grammar is mostly in isolation or taught implicitly. Thus, the point is that students need more general English knowledge in order to develop appropriate ways of improving their grammar, sentence composition, reading strategies, vocabulary and so on.
Birch (2001) assumed that “the issue needs to be addressed since most EAP courses are little more than study-skills ESL courses which do not address the particular English language needs of students from specific disciplines”. In such a course, students will learn both the language of academic discipline and the study skills required during their academic course. Therefore, in this study, the researcher decided to develop General English course, specifically for pre-academic English, which according to Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) refers to “any English teaching that relates to a study purpose” (p. 34).
General English, therefore, is considered as a broad foundation in learning English in which the components like vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and the four skills have to be learned. The four skills are combined to make the learning process more effective, meanwhile the other components are learned through the integrated skills. General English is aimed for pre-academic English in which the students prepare themselves to have English course related to their diciplines and to study abroad. In other words, the desined model will tend to be used for study orientation that introduces the students to college life.
d. English Proficiency
proficiency has become one of the requirements before the learners finishing their study or enrolling to the next level of education. Thus, English language proficiency is considered crucial in the Indonesian academic context.
Since Indonesia has not had official framework for language learning, many universities or institutions refer to the Common European Framework References (CEFR).
CEFR provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc across Europe. It describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively. The description also covers the cultural context in which language is set. The Framework also defines levels of proficiency which allow learners’ progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis. (Language Policy Unit, 2001, p.1)
In its development, CEFR is used not only in European but also many countries in Asia. Actually, CEFR is not single best method or proficiency level because it requires reasons and evidences to claim. However, in this study, CEFR is considered simple and appropriate to describe the level in which learners are
proficient, being assisted based on the learners’ ability in listening, speaking,
reading, and writing. The common reference points are presented in different categories; those are basic, independent, and proficient. The following table shows the orientation points.
Table 2.1. Common Reference Levels (adapted from Language Policy Unit, 2001, p.24)
Proficient user
C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations. C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise
Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Independent user
B2 Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Basic user
A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.
A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.
2. Text-Based Learning (TBL)
Text-based learning (TBL) is the approach that will be involved in this study. Therefore, it is important to know about text-based learning in depth. Text-based learning is also commonly known as genre-based learning. This study will use the
term ‘text-based’ instead of ‘genre-based’. Kay and Dudley-Evans (1998, p.309) explained that all genres control a set of communicative purposes within certain social situations and that each genre has its own structural quality according to those communicative purposes. The communicative purposes and the structural features should be identified when genres or any kind of texts are used in classes. In improving students’ English competences, this study will not only emphasize particular skill but try to make it integrated.
Mickan (2012) proposed that “Text-based learning integrates spoken and written language as in natural language use”. When people use language, it is normal for them to combine reading and writing, just as listening and speaking occur together. Other combinations are also still possible to occur. For instance, when people write a text, they also read and review what they have read. Another example is when people listen to someone’s talk, they probably take note. Therefore, language programs should not teach skills separately. Mickan (2012) added that working with texts integrates the skills to take advantage of multisensory text experiences to enhance memorizing language. The learners will be able to obtain more exposure and support the language production as well.
models are commonly used. The social function of the text is identified to figure out what the text is actually for and in what situation the text is used. The grammar of the texts is analyzed as functional for realization of the social purposes of texts. In some applications, the analysis of the linguistic elements comprising texts dominates with a consequent neglect of the social purposes of texts.
Furthermore, the researcher also reviewed some advantages and disadvantages of applying text-based learning. First, on the positive side, students generally appreciate the models or examples of the texts showing specifically what they have to do linguistically. Regarding this situation, the instructors need to provide the formal and functional properties of a language together in order to
facilitate students’ recognition of how and why linguistic conventions are employed
for particular rhetorical effects. Furthermore, text-based learning encourages learners to participate in the world around them, to comprehend any skills as a tool that they can utilize to promote idea. On the other hand, Byram (2004) said that
“the disadvantages of text-based learning are it underestimates the skills required
to produce content, and the other concern is that it neglects learners’ self -sufficiency”. If the teachers spend class time explaining how language is used for a range of purposes, learners are likely to be passive. This situation also limits the
learners’ creative thoughts about content in which the text is produced. Therefore,
although, at its worst, text-based learning interferes the learners’ creativity, at its best, text-based learning helps learners to identify and interpret the texts.
a. Needs Analysis
Needs analysis is utilized to collect information from the learners at the beginning of the course. According to Feez and Joyce (2002, p.39), needs analysis
aims to express students’ personal language learning goals, priorities, and
aspiration; to collect background information about learners; to identify obstacles and consider the strategy to deal with; and to diagnose the language learning needs of the learners. Needs analysis is only the initial step of designing a course material so that how to conduct should be effective and effcient. Effective means that it can be conducted through interview, survey, group discussion, questionnaire, or student journal, which covers almost all information that the researcher needs. Meanwhile, efficient means that it is the needs analysis has clear objectives including systematic questions or statements which underlying theory.
In order to obtain the detailed needs of the learners, the information gathered through diagnosis are used to identify the contexts in which the learners need to use the language, the types and nature of the texts which need to be learned, student strengths and weaknesses in oracy and literacy, student strengths and weaknesses in specific skills and strategies. Those will become the considerations to step in next stages.
b. Course Design
stretch of language. Text are also fixed in social practices so the learning program
focuses on people’s purposes for language use (Mickan, 2013, p.22). The social
purpose of texts are emphasized in the former. Therefore, the essence is to determine what is going on in a context and how language is necessary to what is taking place.
In order to design the text-based learning model, there are some components that need to be considered. The components consist of the syllabus type, view of language and language learning, content, and methodology. The characteristics of each component are presented as follows.
Table 2.2. The Characteristics of Text-Based Syllabus (adapted from Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.3)
Syllabus type Mixed syllabus: all the elements of various other syllabus types can
constitute a repertoire from which a text-based syllabus can be designed.
View of language Language occurs as a whole texts which are embedded in the social
contexts in which they are used.
View of language
learning
People learn language through working with whole texts.
Content The content is based on whole texts which are selected in relation to
learner needs and the social contexts which learners wish to access.
Methodology The methodology which supports text-based syllabus is based on a
model of teaching and learning in which the learner gradually gains
increasing control of text-types.
opportunities for students to practice the text-types meaningfully outside the classroom.
Another component in designing a course is language content. Language content represents dimensions that teacher decides materials for the students to make progress. The language content is presented in the matrix, which consists of genre, register, meaning, grammar, and expression. The matrix is used to identify the key features of a target text-type, to analyze and identify model texts, to analyze and assess students texts and identify learner need, to select syllabus elements, to plan developmental pathways across one or more dimension, and to sequence syllabus elements. It can be seen in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3. The Elements of Language (adapted from Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.73)
Genre Text-types and their social purpose The stages of text-types
Skills and strategies relating to the purposes for which language is used in the culture.
Register Field (what) Topics
The relative status of those involved in text
The type and frequency of contact between people involved in the text Interpersonal skills and strategies to do with roles and relationships
Mode (how) Distances in time
between the
language of the text and the social activity
Distance in space and time between the interactants Skills and strategies
for using the channel of communication across the text by lexical items which
Speech functions Exchange structure
Reference chains to keep track of participants across a text
Substitution and ellipsis to streamline language
meanings across
Expression Presentation of skills for effective expression of spoken and written texts
Regarding the genre used in the material design, the researcher should compare the text-types in terms of social purposes, and the structure and language features which achieve that purpose. Certificate in Spoken and Written English categories sets of text types which have similar purpose into some families. It is presented as follows. Table 2.4. The Families of Text-Types (Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.85)
Exchanges Simple exchanges relating to information and goods and services Complex or problematic exchanges
Casual conversation Forms Simple formatted texts
Complex formatted texts Procedures Instruction
Procedures
Text which combine more than one of these text-types Story texts Recounts
Narratives
The next component of designing course is methodology. According to Feez and Joyce (2002, p.24), text-based learning requires an accompanying methodology which influences how students work. The most effective methodology for TBL is genre approach. Genre approach constitutes an assumption that language learning shows social interaction which enables students to develop a resource for making meaning, a tool for interpreting and organising reality, and knowledge about language. In order to apply the genre approach, Vygotsky (1978), as cited by Feez and Joyce (2002, p.26), proposed that in any skills, knowledge, or understanding, there are two levels of developments that learner must achieve, those are a level of independent performance and a level of potential performace. The gap between
these two levels is called ‘zone of proximal development’. Vygotsky also proposed
that the process of learning language is a series of scaffolded developmental steps. Thus, it needs collaboration between teacher and student. The following figure
presents the collaboration between teacher’s and student’s progress.
SCAFFOLDING LEARNER PROGRESS
Independent learner performance with no
contribution from teacher Potential performance ↑
Diminishing conribution from teacher as learner’s independent contribution increases
↑
↑
Zone of proximal development
↑ Significant contribution from teacher to
support dependent contribution from learner ↑
Learner’s entry level assessed by teacher
↑
Existing independent functioning
The teaching and learning cycle in the text-based approach consists of number of stages which the teacher and students go through so that students gradually gain independent control of a particular text-type (Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.27). The figure below shows the stages of teaching and learning cycle.
Figure 2.2. Stages of the Teaching and Learning Cycle (adapted from Callaghan and Rothery 1988, Green 1992, Cornish 1992, cited by Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.28).
The first stage is building the context. This stage constitutes the introduction in which the social context of the text-type is introduced. The authentic model is necessary so that students are able to explore features of the general cultural context. The context of situation can also be recognized by investigating the registers of the text-type. The registers involves the field which means the topic of the text and the knowledge of the social activity, the tenor which means the roles and relationships of the people using the text, and the channel which means how the text is presented or being used, written or spoken, using telephone, or face-to-face (Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.28).
5. Linking related texts
1. Building the context
2. Modelling and deconstructing
the text 3. Joint
construction of the text
4. Independent construction of
After providing the general context of the text, students are involved to deconstruct the text by investigating the generic structure and language features of the model. Students also compare the model with other examples of the text-type. Thus, this stage is so called modelling and deconstructing the text (Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.29). Then, the thirs stage is joint construction of the text. In this stage, students begin to constuct their own text. However, the students still get any assistance from their peers and teacher. The teacher gradually reduces the contribution to the text construction in order to let students get closer to control the text-type independently.
The last two stages are independent construction of the text and linking to related texts. Feez and Joyce (2002, p.31) explain that in this stage students should have been able to work independently with the text. This step aims to show the
students’ performances. The performance then will be used for achievement assessment. Then, in the last stage,students are expected to relate what they have learned to other texts in the similar or different contexts, and to future or past cycles of teaching and learning.
c. Planning Units of Works
After preparing the foundation of the course, it comes to the process of planning the details for the units. The most common starting point is determining the topic for each unit. Listing the topics is important because the designer needs to compile all necessary materials. Once the topics have been selected, the designer should sequence the topics. Sequencing topics also consider which topics address
straighforward and concrete concepts, enable to be linked to students’ daily life,
within a topic, including the language features and language activities (Feez and Joyce, 2002).
In planning unit of works, every element should be clear, effective, and systematic. Clear is related to how instructions are provided. Level of difficulty must be adjusted to the students and the language provided must be easily understood. Instruction does not only help students know what to do but also represent model of language that students will be familiar with. Furthermore, the material designer is able to design the units which target exactly the needs and learning styles of the learners (Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.141). In order to make the plan easily, table 2.5 provides checklist that can be used by designers when developing each unit.
Table 2.5. Checklist for Developing Units (adopted from Feez and Joyce, 2002) Language
presentation
Is the language presented as whole, meaningful, and purposeful texts used in social contexts?
Is the language authentic? Design Is it well-designed?
Are the layout and font clear and easy to read? Are the illustration relevant to the text? Are the instructions clear?
Do the diagrams and symbols make sense?
Objectives Do the units, and the activities within the units, have clear learning objectives and/or outcomes?
Are the topics interesting and relevant to the course objectives? Learner group Does the resource avoid topics or illustrations which the learner
group might find uncomfortable?
Material Are the facts presented accurate and the information current? Are people in the resource represented in a way which avoid
bias or stereotyping?
Do the audios and videos recording have good quality? Activities Are the activities workable in the class?
Can the teaching-learning cycle be used well? Cost How much will it cost you or the institution?
In this study, text-based learning is selected because it can influence the teaching and learning process. According to Dammaco (2010), “text-based learning
can be used in a number of ways to produce meaningful communicative tasks.”
Text is not only as a channel for communication, but it is rich input that provides opportunity for the learners to get involved in communicative tasks. Through the spoken or written text, the learners get more exposure which stimulate them to easily understand the context and content of the text. The effect is then the learners can produce the text by themselves. Another research was also conducted by Rust et al.(2006) to know the effect of using text-based learning in a foreign language learning program. The preliminary results showed that generally learners perform well during the usage of text-based learning as well as computer simulations for learning. Before implementing the text-based learning, the researchers gave a pre-test to the learners. At the end, a post-pre-test was given and the results significantly increased. However, there are no significant gap between the results between text-based and computer simulation for learning.
In accordance with the previous research, Mickan (2012) suggests how text-based learning influences the learners in learning the target language. The provided text enables learners to use a target language which is familiar to them—with texts which are authentic, purposeful, and functional. When seeing or hearing texts, the learners are accustomed to questionning in order to make sense of them. Thus, prior experiences prepare learners for working with texts in many ways. They recognize multiple text types and their purposes as a first step to comprehension and use. The other influence of text-based learning toward the learning process is “texts release
The learners have opportunities to select texts out of interest and to read them at leisure for pleasure or information. Many learners already access and create texts independently in chat rooms, in emails and in other social networking sites. Doing the same with target language texts extends their experiences of texts and enables them to work with texts beyond the boundaries of programs and the borders of classrooms.
3. The Four Strands of Language Course
In order to provide appropriate theories for this research and reference for designing the learning material, the four strands will be discussed in this section. Language learning involves many activities that influence the learning process. The combined activities should be considered because each activity has its portion. Consequently, language course should cover balanced activities.
Balancing the learning activities is necessary. Nation (2007, p.1) proposed the four strands to descibe a framework which sees the appropriate balance of opportunities for learning. It will be discussed as follows.
a. Learning Through Listening and Reading
The first strand is related to listening and reading. Nation (2007, p.2) says,”In
this strand which is meaning-focused input, students’ focus is on understanding and
obtaining knowledge from what they are listening to and reading.” This strand
promotes learners to learn using reading and listening activities, which also means providing the receptive skills. The activities for this meaning-focused input can be listening to conversation, watching video, and extensive reading.
