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(1)

© 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Chapter 6

To accompany

Quantitative Analysis for Management, Tenth Edition, by Render, Stair, and Hanna

Power Point slides created by Jeff Heyl

Inventory Control Models

(2)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 2

Introduction

Inventory is an expensive and important

asset to many companies

Lower inventory levels can reduce costs

Low inventory levels may result in stockouts

and dissatisfied customers

Most companies try to balance high and low

inventory levels with cost minimization as a goal

Inventory is any stored resource used to

satisfy a current or future need

Common examples are raw materials,

(3)

Introduction

Basic components of inventory

planning

Planning

what inventory is to be

stocked and how it is to be acquired

(purchased or manufactured)

This information is used in

forecasting

demand for the inventory

and in

controlling

inventory levels

Feedback

provides a means

to revise

the plan and forecast based on

(4)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 4

Introduction

Inventory may account for 50% of the total

(5)

Introduction

All organizations have some type of inventory

control system

Inventory planning helps determine what

goods and/or services need to be produced

Inventory planning helps determine whether

the organization produces the goods or

services or whether they are purchased from

another organization

Inventory planning also involves demand

(6)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 6

The Inventory Process

Suppliers

Customers

Finished

Goods

Raw

Materials

Work in

Process

Fabrication/

Assembly

Inventory Storage

(7)

Controlling Inventory

Levels

Introduction

Forecasting Parts/Product

Demand Planning on What

Inventory to Stock and How to Acquire

It

Feedback Measurements to Revise Plans and

Forecasts

Figure 6.1

(8)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 8

Importance of Inventory Control

Five uses of inventory

The decoupling functionStoring resources

Irregular supply and demandQuantity discounts

Avoiding stockouts and shortages

The decoupling function

Used as a buffer between stages in a

manufacturing process

(9)

Importance of Inventory Control

Storing resources

Seasonal products may be stored to satisfy

off-season demand

Materials can be stored as raw materials,

work-in-process, or finished goods

Labor can be stored as a component of

partially completed subassemblies

Irregular supply and demand

Demand and supply may not be constant over

time

(10)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 10

Importance of Inventory Control

Quantity discounts

Lower prices may be available for larger orders

Cost of item is reduced but storage and insurance

costs increase, as well as the chances for more spoilage, damage and theft.

Investing in inventory reduces the available funds

for other projects

Avoiding stockouts and shortages

Stockouts may result in lost sales

Dissatisfied customers may choose to buy from

(11)

Inventory Decisions

There are only two fundamental decisions

in controlling inventory

How much to orderWhen to order

The major objective is to minimize total

inventory costs

Common inventory costs are

Cost of the items (purchase or material cost)Cost of ordering

(12)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 12

Inventory Cost Factors

ORDERING COST FACTORS CARRYING COST FACTORS

Developing and sending purchase orders Cost of capital

Processing and inspecting incoming

inventory Taxes

Bill paying Insurance

Inventory inquiries Spoilage

Utilities, phone bills, and so on, for the

purchasing department Theft Salaries and wages for the purchasing

department employees Obsolescence Supplies such as forms and paper for the

purchasing department Salaries and wages for warehouse employees Utilities and building costs for the warehouse

Supplies such as forms and paper for the warehouse

(13)

Inventory Cost Factors

Ordering costs are generally independent

of order quantity

Many involve personnel time

The amount of work is the same no matter the

size of the order

Carrying costs generally varies with the

amount of inventory, or the order size

The labor, space, and other costs increase as

the order size increases

Of course, the actual cost of items

(14)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 14

Economic Order Quantity

The

economic order quantity

economic order quantity

(

EOQ

EOQ

)

model is one of the oldest and most

commonly known inventory control

techniques

It dates from a 1915 publication by

Ford W. Harris

It is still used by a large number of

organizations today

It is easy to use but has a number of

(15)

Economic Order Quantity

Assumptions

1. Demand is known and constant

2. Lead time (the time between the placement and

receipt of an order) is known and constant

3. Receipt of inventory is instantaneous

Inventory from an order arrives in one batch, at

one point in time

4. Purchase cost per unit is constant throughout

the year; no quantity discounts

5. The only variable costs are the placing an order,

ordering cost

ordering cost, and holding or storing inventory over time, holding or holding carrying cost, and these are carrying cost

constant throughout the year

6. Orders are placed so that stockouts or shortages

(16)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 16

Inventory Usage Over Time

Time Inventory

Level

Minimum Inventory

0

Order Quantity = Q =

Maximum Inventory Level

Figure 6.2

Inventory usage has a sawtooth shape

Inventory jumps from 0 to the maximum when the shipment arrives
(17)

EOQ Inventory Costs

The objective is to minimize total costs

The relevant costs are the ordering and carrying/

holding costs, all other costs are constant. Thus, by

minimizing the sum of the ordering and carrying costs, we are also minimizing the total costs

The annual ordering cost is the number of orders per

year times the cost of placing each order

As the inventory level changes daily, use the average

inventory level to determine annual holding or carrying cost

The annual carrying cost equals the average inventory

times the inventory carrying cost per unit per year

The maximum inventory is Q and the average inventory

(18)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 18

Inventory Costs in the EOQ Situation

Objective is generally to minimize total cost

Relevant costs are ordering costs and carrying

costs

2 level

inventory

Average Q

INVENTORY LEVEL

DAY BEGINNING ENDING AVERAGE

April 1 (order received) 10 8 9

April 2 8 6 7

April 3 6 4 5

April 4 4 2 3

April 5 2 0 1

Maximum level April 1 = 10 units

Total of daily averages = 9 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 1 = 25 Number of days = 5

(19)

Inventory Costs in the EOQ Situation

Develop an expression for the ordering cost.

Develop and expression for the carrying cost.

Set the ordering cost equal to the carrying

cost.

Solve this equation for the optimal order

(20)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 20

Inventory Costs in the EOQ Situation

Mathematical equations can be developed using

Q = number of pieces to order

EOQ = Q* = optimal number of pieces to order

D = annual demand in units for the inventory item

Co = ordering cost of each order

Ch = holding or carrying cost per unit per year

Annual ordering cost

(21)

Inventory Costs in the EOQ Situation

Mathematical equations can be developed using

Q = number of pieces to order

EOQ = Q* = optimal number of pieces to order

D = annual demand in units for the inventory item

Co = ordering cost of each order

Ch = holding or carrying cost per unit per year

h

C Q

2

Annual holding cost inventoryAverage

Carrying cost per unit

per year

Total Inventory Cost =

C

o

Q

C

h

Q

D

2

(22)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 22

Inventory Costs in the EOQ Situation

Minimum Total Cost

Optimal Order Quantity

Curve of Total Cost

Curve of Total Cost

of Carrying

of Carrying

and Ordering

and Ordering

Carrying Cost Curve

Carrying Cost Curve

Ordering Cost Curve

Ordering Cost Curve

Cost

Order Quantity

Figure 6.3

(23)

Finding the

EOQ

When the EOQ assumptions are met, total cost is

minimized when Annual ordering cost = Annual holding cost h o C Q C Q D 2

Solving for Q

h o Q C

(24)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 24

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) Model

h

C Q

2 cost

holding

Annual

o

C Q

D

cost ordering

Annual

h o

C DC Q 2

*

EOQ

(25)

Sumco Pump Company Example

Company sells pump housings to other

companies

Would like to reduce inventory costs by finding

optimal order quantity

Finding Total Annual Cost

Annual demand = 1,000 unitsOrdering cost = $10 per order

(26)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 26

(27)

Sumco Pump Company Example

Total annual cost = Order cost + Holding cost

h o C Q C Q D TC 2   ) . ( ) ( , 5 0 2 200 10 200 000 1   100 50

50 $ $

$

(28)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 28

Sumco Pump Company Example

(29)

Sumco Pump Company Example

(30)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 30

Purchase Cost of Inventory Items

Total inventory cost can be written to include the

cost of purchased items

Given the EOQ assumptions, the annual

purchase cost is constant at D C no matter the order policy

C is the purchase cost per unitD is the annual demand in units

It may be useful to know the average dollar level

of inventory

2 level

dollar

(31)

Purchase Cost of Inventory Items

Inventory carrying cost is often expressed as an

annual percentage of the unit cost or price of the inventory

This requires a new variable

Annual inventory holding charge as a percentage of unit price or cost

I

The cost of storing inventory for one year is then

IC Ch

thus,

IC DC

Q 2 o

(32)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 32

Sensitivity Analysis with the

EOQ Model

The EOQ model assumes all values are know and

fixed over time

Generally, however, the values are estimated or

may change

Determining the effects of these changes is

called sensitivity analysissensitivity analysis

Because of the square root in the formula,

changes in the inputs result in relatively small changes in the order quantity

h o

C DC

2

(33)

Sensitivity Analysis with the

EOQ Model

In the Sumco example

units 200 50 0 10 000 1 2   . ) )( , ( EOQ

If the ordering cost were increased four times from

$10 to $40, the order quantity would only double

units 400 50 0 40 000 1 2   . ) )( , ( EOQ

In general, the EOQ changes by the square root

(34)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 34

Reorder Point:

Determining When To Order

Once the order quantity is determined, the next

decision is

when to order

when to order

The time between placing an order and its

receipt is called the

lead time

lead time

(

L

L

) or

delivery

delivery

time

time

Inventory must be available during this period to

met the demand

When to order is generally expressed as a

reorder point

reorder point

(

ROP

ROP

) – the inventory level at

which an order should be placed

Demand

per day new order in daysLead time for a

ROP

(35)

Determining the Reorder Point

The slope of the graph is the daily inventory

usage

Expressed in units demanded per day,

d

If an order is placed when the inventory level

(36)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 36

Procomp’s Computer Chip Example

Demand for the computer chip is 8,000 per yearDaily demand is 40 units

Delivery takes three working days

ROP d L 40 units per day 3 days 120 units

An order is placed when the inventory reaches

120 units

The order arrives 3 days later just as the

(37)

The Reorder Point (ROP) Curve

In

ve

nt

or

y

L

ev

el

(

U

ni

ts

)

Q

*

ROP

(Units)

Slope = Units/Day = d

(38)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 38

EOQ Without The

Instantaneous Receipt Assumption

When inventory accumulates over time, the

instantaneous receipt

instantaneous receipt assumption does not apply

Daily demand rate must be taken into account

The revised model is often called the production production

run model

run model

Inventory Level

Time Part of Inventory Cycle

Part of Inventory Cycle

During Which Production is

During Which Production is

Taking Place

Taking Place

There is No Production

There is No Production

During This Part of the

During This Part of the

(39)

EOQ Without The

Instantaneous Receipt Assumption

Instead of an ordering cost, there will be a

setup cost

the cost of setting up the

production facility to manufacture the desired

product

Includes the salaries and wages of employees

who are responsible for setting up the

equipment, engineering and design costs of

making the setup, paperwork, supplies,

utilities, etc.

The optimal production quantity is derived by

(40)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 40

Annual Carrying Cost for

Production Run Model

In production runs, setup cost replaces ordering setup cost

cost

The model uses the following variables

Q  number of pieces per order, or production run

Cs setup cost

Ch holding or carrying cost per unit per year

p daily production rate

d daily demand rate

(41)

Annual Carrying Cost for

Production Run Model

Maximum inventory level

(Total produced during the production run)

– (Total used during the production run)

(Daily production rate)(Number of days production)

– (Daily demand)(Number of days production)

(pt) – (dt)

since Total produced Q pt

we know tQp

Maximum inventory

level 

(42)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 42

Annual Carrying Cost for

Production Run Model

Since the average inventory is one-half the

(43)

Annual Setup Cost for

Production Run Model

s

C Q

D

cost setup

Annual

Setup cost replaces ordering cost when a product is

produced over time (independent of the size of the order and the size of the production run)

and

o

C Q

D

cost ordering

(44)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 44

Determining the Optimal

Production Quantity

By setting setup costs equal to holding costs, we

can solve for the optimal order quantity

Annual holding cost Annual setup cost

s h C Q D C p d Q         1 2

Solving for Q, we get

(45)

Production Run Model

Summary of equations

        p d C DC Q h s 1 2 quantity production Optimal * s C Q Dcost setup Annual h C p d Q         1 2 cost holding Annual

(46)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 46

Brown Manufacturing Example

Brown Manufacturing produces commercial

refrigeration units in batches

Annual demand D 10,000 units Setup cost Cs $100

Carrying cost Ch $0.50 per unit per year Daily production rate p 80 units daily

Daily demand rate d 60 units daily

How many refrigeration units should Brown produce in each batch?

(47)

Brown Manufacturing Example

        p d C DC Q h s 1 2 * 1. 2.           80 60 1 5 0 100 000 10 2 . , * Q
(48)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 48

Brown Manufacturing Example

(49)

Brown Manufacturing Example

(50)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 50

Quantity Discount Models

Quantity discounts are commonly available

The basic EOQ model is adjusted by adding in the

purchase or materials cost

Total cost Material cost + Ordering cost + Holding cost

h o C

Q C

Q D DC

2 cost

Total

where

D annual demand in units

Cs ordering cost of each order

C cost per unit

(51)

Quantity Discount Models

Quantity discounts are commonly available

The basic EOQ model is adjusted by adding in the

purchase or materials cost

Total cost Material cost + Ordering cost + Holding cost

h o C

Q C

Q D DC

2 cost

Total

where

D annual demand in units

Cs ordering cost of each order

C cost per unit

Ch holding or carrying cost per unit per year Holding cost Ch IC

(52)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 52

Quantity Discount Models

A typical quantity discount schedule

DISCOUNT

NUMBER DISCOUNT QUANTITY DISCOUNT (%) DISCOUNT COST ($)

1 0 to 999 0 5.00

2 1,000 to 1,999 4 4.80

3 2,000 and over 5 4.75

Table 6.3

Buying at the lowest unit cost is not always the

(53)

Quantity Discount Models

Total cost curve for the quantity discount model

Figure 6.6

TC Curve for Discount 1

TC Curve for Discount 3 Total

Cost $

Order Quantity

0 1,000 2,000

TC Curve for Discount 2

(54)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 54

Brass Department Store Example

Brass Department Store stocks toy race carsTheir supplier has given them the quantity

discount schedule shown in Table 6.3

Annual demand is 5,000 cars, ordering cost is $49, and

holding cost is 20% of the cost of the car

The first step is to compute EOQ values for each

discount order per cars 700 00 5 2 0 49 000 5 2

1  

) . )( . ( ) )( , )( ( EOQ order per cars 714 80 4 2 0 49 000 5 2

2  

) . )( . ( ) )( , )( ( EOQ order per cars 718 75 4 2 0 49 000 5 2

3  

(55)

Brass Department Store Example

The second step is adjust quantities below the

allowable discount range

The EOQ for discount 1 is allowable

The EOQs for discounts 2 and 3 are outside the

allowable range and have to be adjusted to the smallest quantity possible to purchase and

receive the discount

Q1 700

Q2 1,000

(56)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 56

Brass Department Store Example

The third step is to compute the total cost for

each quantity

DISCOUNT NUMBER

UNIT PRICE

(C)

ORDER QUANTITY

(Q)

ANNUAL MATERIAL

COST ($) = DC

ANNUAL ORDERING

COST ($) = (D/Q)Co

ANNUAL CARRYING

COST ($)

= (Q/2)Ch TOTAL ($)

1 $5.00 700 25,000 350.00 350.00 25,700.00

2 4.80 1,000 24,000 245.00 480.00 24,725.00

3 4.75 2,000 23,750 122.50 950.00 24,822.50

The fourth step is to choose the alternative

with the lowest total cost

(57)

Brass Department Store Example

(58)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 58

Brass Department Store Example

(59)

Use of Safety Stock

If demand or the lead time are uncertain,

the exact

ROP

will not be known with

certainty

To prevent

stockouts

stockouts

, it is necessary to

carry extra inventory called

safety stock

safety stock

Safety stock can prevent stockouts when

demand is unusually high

Safety stock can be implemented by

(60)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 60

Use of Safety Stock

The basic ROP equation is ROP d L

d  daily demand (or average daily demand)

L order lead time or the number of working days it takes to deliver an order (or average lead time)

A safety stock variable is added to the equation

to accommodate uncertain demand during lead time

ROP d L + SS

where

(61)

Use of Safety Stock

Stockout

Stockout

Figure 6.7(a) Inventory on Hand

(62)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 62

Use of Safety Stock

Figure 6.7(b) Inventory on Hand

Time Stockout is Avoided

Stockout is Avoided

Safety

Safety

Stock,

(63)

Just-in-Time Inventory Control

To achieve greater efficiency in the

production process, organizations have

tried to have less in-process inventory on

hand

This is known as

JIT inventory

JIT inventory

The inventory arrives just in time to be

used during the manufacturing process

One technique of implementing JIT is a

(64)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 64

Just-in-Time Inventory Control

Kanban in Japanese means “card”

With a dual-card kanban system, there is a

conveyance kanban, or C-kanban, and a

production kanban, or P-kanban

Kanban systems are quite simple, but they

require considerable discipline

Supplier or the warehouse delivers

components to the production line only as and

when they are needed

Production lines only produce/deliver desired

components when they receive a card and an

empty container, indicating that more parts will

be needed in production

As there is little inventory to cover variability,

(65)

4 Steps of Kanban

1. A user takes a container of parts or inventory

along with its C-kanban to his or her work area When there are no more parts or the container is empty, the user returns the container along with the C-kanban to the producer area

2. At the producer area, there is a full container of

parts along with a P-kanban

(66)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 66

4 Steps of Kanban

3. The detached P-kanban goes back to the

producer area along with the empty container

The P-kanban is a signal that new parts are to be manufactured or that new parts are to be placed in the container and is attached to the container when it is filled

4. This process repeats itself during the typical

(67)

The Kanban System

Producer

Area Storage Area User Area

P-kanban and Container

C-kanban and Container

4

3 2

1

(68)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 68

Dependent Demand: The Case for

Material Requirements Planning

All the inventory models discussed so far have

assumed demand for one item is independent

of the demand for any other item

However, in many situations items demand is

dependent on demand for one or more other

items

In these situations,

MRP

MRP

can be employed

effectively

Material Requirements Planning (MRP) is an

inventory model that can handle dependent

demand

(69)

Dependent Demand: The Case for

Material Requirements Planning

Some of the benefits of MRP are

1. Increased customer service levels 2. Reduced inventory costs

3. Better inventory planning and scheduling 4. Higher total sales

5. Faster response to market changes and shifts 6. Reduced inventory levels without reduced

customer service

Most MRP systems are computerized, but

(70)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 70

Structure of the MRP System

Output Reports Output Reports MRP by period report MRP by date report Planned order report Purchase advice Exception reports Order early or late

or not needed Order quantity too

small or too large Data Files

Data Files

Purchasing data BOM

Lead times (Item master file)

(71)

MRP has evolved to include not only the materials

required in production, but also the labor hours, material cost, and other resources related to

production

In this approach the term MRP II is often used and

the word resourceresource replaces the word requirementsrequirements

As this concept evolved and sophisticated

software was developed, these systems became known as enterprise resource planning enterprise resource planning (ERPERP) systems

(72)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 72

(73)

ERP and MRP

Customer Relationship Management

Invoicing

Shipping Distributors,

retailers, and end users Sales Order

(order entry,

(74)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 74

Table 13.6

Bills of Material

Work Orders

Purchasing and Lead Times

Routings and Lead Times Master

Production Schedule

Inventory Management

MRP MRP

(75)

Figure 14.11

Supply Chain Management

Vendor Communication

(schedules, EDI, advanced shipping notice, e-commerce, etc.)

(76)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 76

Figure 14.11Table 13.6

Finance/ Accounting

General Ledger Accounts Receivable

Payroll Accounts

Payable

(77)

The objective of an ERP System is to reduce costs

by integrating all of the operations of a firm

Starts with the supplier of materials needed and

flows through the organization to include invoicing the customer of the final product

Data are entered only once into a database where

it can be quickly and easily accessed by anyone in the organization

Benefits include

Reduced transaction costs

Increased speed and accuracy of information

Almost all areas of the firm benefit

(78)

© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc. 6 – 78

There are drawbacks

The software is expensive to buy and

costly to customize

Small systems can cost hundreds of thousands

of dollars

Large systems can cost hundreds of millions

The implementation of an ERP system may

require a company to change its normal

operations

Employees are often resistant to change

Training employees on the use of the new

software can be expensive

(79)

The most common ones are from the firms

SAP,

Oracle,

People Soft,

Baan, and

JD Edwards.

Even small systems can cost hundreds of

thousands of dollars.

The larger systems can cost hundreds of millions

of dollars.

Gambar

Figure 6.1© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc.    6 – 7
Table 6.1© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc.    6 – 12
Table 6.3 Buying at the lowest unit cost is not always the best choice
Figure 6.6Order Quantity© 2009 Prentice-Hall, Inc.    6 – 53
+7

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