Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol13.Issue1.1999:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1999] 1 4 –2 4 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

Dimensions of teacher in-service training for school

improvement

M arsha Botello

Orc utt Unio n Sc ho o l Distric t, Santa Maria, USA

Naftaly S. Glasman

Unive rsity o f Califo rnia, Santa Barbara, USA

Keywords

Impro ve me nt, Sc ho o ls, Te ac he rs, Training, USA

Abstract

Examine s re latio nships be twe e n the ro le o f e le me ntary sc ho o l princ ipals in te ac he r in-se rvic e ac tivitie s and: what princ ipals ac quire in administrato r in-se rvic e training; and what princ ipals do in re gard to te ac he r fo llo w-up ac tivi-tie s in the c lassro o ms. Using inte rvie w and o bse rvatio n te c h-nique s, re latio nships are fo und whic h re fle c t suc c e ssful e ffo rts e xte nde d to wards sc ho o l impro ve -me nt.

Wh en ca lls a r e m a d e on sch ools a n d s ch ool d is t r ict s t o en ga ge in m a jor im p r ovem en t s, on e a ct iv it y w h ich b ecom es a cen t r a l com p o-n eo-n t of t h e r es p oo-n s e is io-n -s er v ice t r a io-n io-n g for ed u ca t ion a l p er son n el. In t h is r e ga r d , t ea ch er in -ser v ice t r a in in g h a s b een t h e m a in s t ay s et of a ct iv it ies r u n by or a t lea st s h a p ed by t h e sch ool p r in cip a l. Beca u se of t h e in d iv id u a lit y of ea ch s ch ool p r in cip a l a n d t h e s p ecifi c s et of cir cu m s t a n ces of ea ch s ch ool a n d it s en v ir on -m en t , t h e ch a r a ct er of in -s er v ice a ct iv it ies in ea ch s ch ool h a s b een m or e or less sch ool-sp ecifi c.

In t h is p a p er w e su m m a r ize p a r t s of a s t u dy (Bot ello, 1997) w h ich d es cr ib ed a n d exa m in ed t ea ch er in s er v ice a ct iv it ies in t h r ee elem en -t a r y s ch ools in Cen -t r a l Ca lifor n ia . T h e se g-m en t of t h e s t u dy w h ich is cover ed in t h is p a p er con s t it u t es t h e follow in g t wo s p ecifi c ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h e in -s er v ice en d eavor : 1 t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t h e r ole of t h e p r in cip a l in t ea ch er in -s er v ice a ct iv it ies a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e a ct iv it ies w h ich t ook p la ce in a p r ior a d m in is t r a t or in -ser v ice t r a in in g w h ich t h e p r in cip a l a t t en d ed ; a n d 2 t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t h e r ole of t h e

p r in cip a l in t ea ch er in -s er v ice a ct iv it ies a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e follow -u p a ct iv it ies in t h e cla s sr oom s in t h e sch ool.

Desp it e t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e p r in cip a l in ser v ice – t ea ch er in ser v ice – t ea ch er follow -u p r ela t ion sh ip, t h is lin k a ge h a s n ot p r ev i-ou s ly b een s t u d ied s y st em a t ica lly. In t h is st u dy, t h e fi r st d im en sion m en t ion ed a b ove is in vest iga t ed in t h e p a r t w h ich con sid er s t h e select ion of t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls (d escr ib ed in d et a il in t h e m et h od ology sect ion ). T h e sec-on d d im en s isec-on m en t isec-on ed a b ove is exa m in ed v ia t h e fou r follow in g r es ea r ch q u es t ion s : 1 Wh a t d o p r in cip a ls d o a s in s t r u ct ion a l lea d er s in s t a ff in -ser v ice t r a in in g w h ich is d es ign ed t o fa cilit a t e a n d s u p p or t sch ool-w id e in st r u ct ion a l im p r ovem en t ? 2 Wh a t p er ce p t ion s d o p r in cip a ls h ave a b ou t

n u m b er 1 a b ove?

3 Wh a t d o t ea ch er s d o in t h e cla s s r oom s a s a r es u lt of n u m b er 1 a b ove?

4 Wh a t p er ce p t ion s d o t ea ch er s h ave a b ou t n u m b er 3 a b ove?

Selected pertinent literature

Representative studies on the principal’s role in school improvement

It h a s b een a t lea s t t wo d eca d es sin ce

r esea r ch er s a n d w r it er s b e ga n s y st em a t ica lly seek in g w ay s t o u n d er s t a n d t h e r ole a n d effect iven ess of t h e s ch ool p r in cip a l in b r in g-in g a b ou t ch a n ge g-in t h e sch ool. T h e d om g-in a n t t h em e of societ a l d em a n d s on sch ools in t h e 1980s w a s “effect iven ess”. St u dy a ft er st u dy look ed a t sch ools w it h st u d en t s s cor in g h igh on a ch ievem en t t est s a n d exa m in ed b eh av -ior s of t h e p r in cip a ls w h ich w er e a ssu m ed t o b r in g a b ou t – a t lea st in p a r t – t h ese h igh scor es. For exa m p le, Lip h a m (1981) list s t h e follow in g b eh av ior s: com m it m en t t o im p r ove-m en t , p a r t icip a t ion in cla ss r ooove-m a ct iv it ies, m on it or in g cla ssr oom t im e, en ga gem en t in effect ive in st r u ct ion a l im p r ovem en t , a n d h av in g p os it ive a t t it u d es. Ba sed on a com p r e-h en sive st u dy con d u ct ed a t a b ou t t e-h e sa m e t im e, Bos ser t et a l. (1982) cla ssify t h e effec-t iven ess-r ela effec-t ed b eh av ior s w h ich effec-t h ey fou n d in in st r u ct ion a l or ga n iza t ion a ct ion s, sch ool clim a t e a ct ion s a n d p r in cip a l m a n a gem en t a ct ion s. H a llin ger a n d Mu r p h y (1986) offer t h e follow in g eigh t s p ecifi c effect iven essr ela t ed b eh av ioessr s : fessr a m in g a n d com m u n ica t -in g sch ool goa ls, su p er v is -in g a n d eva lu a t -in g in st r u ct ion , coor d in a t in g cu r r icu lu m , d evel-op in g h igh st a n d a r d s a n d exp ect a t ion s, m on i-t or in g si-t u d en i-t p r ogr ess, p r om oi-t in g p r ofes-sion a l d evelop m en t of t ea ch er s, p r ot ect in g in st r u ct ion a l t im e a n d d evelop in g in cen t ives for st u d en t s a n d t ea ch er s.

In t h e ea r ly 1990s, sever a l w r it er s lin k ed t h e su r v iva l of t h e sch ool t o w h a t t h e p r in cip a l m igh t or m igh t n ot d o (e.g. Ba r t h , 1988, 1990; F u lla n a n d H a r gr eaves, 1992; Leit h wood a n d J a n t zi, 1991; Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d M iles, 1990; Ser giova n n i, 1990, 1992). T h is lin k a ge im p lies t h a t t h e n eed for t h e p r in cip a l t o en ga ge in b r in gin g a b ou t ch a n ge is m a n d a t or y.

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Marsha Bo te llo and Naftaly S. Glasman Dime nsio ns o f te ac he r in-se rvic e training fo r sc ho o l impro ve me nt

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 3 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 1 4 –2 4

Miles (1990) em p h a s ize a focu s on ch a n ge b eca u s e w h a t exis t s ca n n ot a n d s h ou ld n ot con t in u e t o exis t . Ser giova n n i (1992) w a n t s id ea s a n d p r ofes sion a l a u t h or it y t o gu id e ch a n ge. Leit h wood a n d J a n t zi (1991) offer t r a n s for m a t ion a l lea d er sh ip a s ch a n gin g w h a t t ea ch er s d o; a n d F u lla n (1993) ca lls for fu n d a m en t a l ch a n ges in t h e “cu lt u r e” of t h e sch ool.

Bot ello (1997) h a s su m m a r ized t h e lit er a -t u r e of -t h e m id d le a n d la -t e 1990s a n d offer ed a m od ifi ed list of in st r u ct ion a l lea d er s h ip b eh av ior s d esign ed t o b r in g a b ou t s ch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t . T h e list in clu d es: • u n ify in g t h e sch ool’s s t a k eh old er s ; • b ein g v is ibly p r es en t ;

• p r ov id in g a n d p r ot ect in g t h e in st r u ct ion a l p r ogr a m ;

• r ela t in g ed u ca t ion a l p olicy t o cla s s r oom im p lem en t a t ion ;

• h elp in g t ea ch er s lea r n h ow t o a s sis t st u -d en t s t o in ven t k n ow le-d ge;

• m ot iva t in g t ea ch er s in s t a ff d evelop m en t exp er ien ces;

• con s t r u ct in g t ea ch er cu lt u r es ; a n d • sh a p in g t ea ch er p er ce p t ion s of t h e p r in

ci-p a l’s in s t it u t ion a l lea d er s h ici-p.

In-service training for school principals T h e lit er a t u r e p er t a in in g t o a d m in is t r a t or in -ser v ice t r a in in g is r ela t ively r ecen t (e.g. Da r es h , 1988; Da r es h a n d P lay k o, 1992; F u lla n et a l., 1990; H a llin ger a n d Wim p elb er g, 1989, J oh n s on , 1986; Ma r t in a n d J oh n s on , 1989). A good p or t ion of t h is lit er a t u r e is p r es cr ip t ive.

For exa m p le, in Ca lifor n ia , in 1983 t h e le gisla t u r e p a s sed a m a jor sch ool r efor m a ct , Sen -a t e Bill (SB) 813. It s r eq u ir em en t s in clu d e t h e s t r en gt h en in g of in st r u ct ion a l lea d er s h ip s k ills in sch ool a d m in is t r a t or s in or d er t o im p r ove s er v ices offer ed t o p u blic s ch ool s t u d en t s. T h e in t en t ion s of t h is le gisla t ive p r op os a l a r e a s follow s :

T h e le gis la t u r e in t en d s t h a t t h e a d m in ist r a -t or su p p or -t a n d d evelop m en -t a c-t iv i-t ies fu n d ed by t h is a r t icle w ill lea d t o d ir ect im p r ovem en t s in ser v ices t o Ca lifor n ia p u blic s ch ool p u p ils. (Ar t icle 3. Ad m in is t r a -t or T r a in in g a n d E va lu a -t ion , Sec-t ion 44681, Ca lifor n ia E d u ca t ion Cod e).

In 1984, t h e Ca lifor n ia De p a r t m en t of E d u ca -t ion cr ea -t ed w h a -t wou ld even -t u a lly b e ca lled t h e Ca lifor n ia Lea d er sh ip Aca d em y (CSLA). T h e p u r p ose of CSLA is t o p r ov id e s it e a n d cen t r a l d is t r ict a d m in is t r a t or s w it h on goin g op p or t u n it ies t o im p r ove t h eir m a n a gem en t a n d lea d er sh ip sk ills. T h e st a t ed m a in ob jec-t ive of CSLA is:

t o h elp p r a ct icin g a d m in ist r a t or s a n d t ea ch -er s in lea d -er s h ip p os it ion s st r en gt h en t h eir in st r u ct ion a l lea d er s h ip s k ills a n d focu s t h eir a ct ion s on t h e iss u es a n d s t r a t e gies

cr it ica l t o in cr ea sin g t h e a ch ievem en t of a ll st u d en t s in Ca lifor n ia (CSLA Over v iew, 1993).

Sin ce it s cr ea t ion , sch ool d is t r ict s in Ca lifor -n ia h ave b ee-n r elea si-n g sch ool p r i-n cip a ls t o a t t en d t h e Aca d em y. T h e im p a ct of t h is in -ser v ice t r a in in g on t h e p r in cip a ls h a s va r ied w it h t h e st r en gt h of t h eir d esir e t o la u n ch a m a jor sch ool im p r ovem en t effor t a n d w it h t h eir ca p a cit y t o im p lem en t su ch a n effor t .

Most of t h e w r it er s in t h e 1990s su ggest t h a t for t h e p r in cip a l t o en h a n ce t h e p ossib ilit ies of b r in gin g a b ou t sign ifi ca n t ch a n ges in t h e sch ool, s/ h e n eed s t o a cq u ir e n ew (a d d it ion a l) k n ow led ge a n d sk ills h im / h er s elf. Ap p a r -en t ly, t h e in -ser v ice for m a t h a s b e-en t h e m ost p op u la r. Da r esh (1988) look ed a t 56 st u d ies focu sin g on in -ser v ice wor k for p r in cip a ls over a t en yea r p er iod . In look in g a t t h e con -t en -t of -t h e in -ser v ice p r ogr a m s, -t h eir p r oce-d u r es, t h eir oce-d evelop m en t , eva lu a t ion a n oce-d va lid a t ion , a n d t h eir effect s on a d m in ist r a -t or s, -t ea ch er s a n d o-t h er s, h e con clu d es -t h a -t : • Ver y few r esea r ch r e p or t s h ave b een p u b

-lis h ed a b ou t p r in cip a l in -s er v ice.

• M ost of t h e wor k t h a t is p u blish ed focu ses on p r oblem s olv in g r a t h er t h a n on t h eor y bu ild in g.

• Ver y lit t le of t h e wor k en t a ils on -sit e a n d n a t u r a list ic d a t a ga t h er in g.

A la t er r e p or t (Da r es h a n d P lay k o, 1992) con -clu d es t h a t :

• E ffect iven ess of p r in cip a l in ser v ice t r a in -in g is a fu n ct ion of t h e n eed s of t h e p a r t icip a n t s (e.g. t im e m a n a gem en t , loca lly m a n -d a t e-d p r ogr a m s).

• T h er e is n o in t er es t in p r in cip a l in -ser v ice t r a in in g in lea r n in g a d d it ion a l con ce p t u a l sk ills.

• T h er e is a r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t h e p r in ci-p a l’s b a ck gr ou n d a n d t h e d esir ed ci-p r in cici-p a l in -ser v ice con t en t .

Accor d in g t o F u lla n a n d St eigelb a u er (1991), “T h e p r e p a r a t ion a n d p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t of a d -m in ist r a t or s h ave evolved fr o-m t h e u n iver s it y -b a s ed ed u ca t ion a l a d m in ist r a t ion t r a d it ion t o a va r iet y of for m s t h a t t en d t o clu st er a r ou n d t h e r es t r u ct u r in g t h em es” (p. 336). T h is exp a n sion in con t in u in g p r ofes-sion a l d evelop m en t , F u lla n n ot es, in t en sifi ed in t h e 1980s w h en 24 st a t es en a ct ed le gisla t ion for in ser v ice t r a in in g for sch ool a d m in ist r a -t or s, es-t a blish in g lea d er sh ip a ca d em ies a n d a d m in ist r a t ive t r a in in g cen t er s. Accor d in g t o F u lla n , a lt h ou gh m a n y of t h ese n ew

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st u d ies w h ich cla im t h a t t h e in effect iven es s of p r ofes s ion a l d evelop m en t is d u e p r im a r ily t o t h e la ck of “p r ogr a m follow -u p ”.

For exa m p le, H a llin ger a n d Wim p elb er g (1989) ob s er ve t h a t a lt h ou gh p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t p r ogr a m s for s ch ool a d m in is t r a -t or s a r e b e gin n in g -t o a d d r es s r eleva n -t is s u es, t h e in fr eq u en cy of su b st a n t ive p r ogr a m follow u p in t h e for m s of coa ch in g, on sit e t ech n ica l a ss ist a n ce a n d s u p p or t is la ck in g. M a r -t in a n d J oh n s on (1989) ob ser ve (in -t h eir s-t u dy of Color a d o’s a d m in ist r a t or s t a ff d evelop -m en t p r ogr a -m s ) a n a b sen ce of su b s eq u en t ob s er va t ion s, coa ch in g, su r vey s, a n a ly ses, or t ech n ica l a ssis t a n ce (p. 10). Lit t le et a l. (1987) st u d ied t h e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea d er s h ip Aca d em y a n d n ot e t h a t a la ck of follow -u p r esu lt ed in t h e r ela t ive in effect iven es s of t h is p r ogr a m .

F u lla n a s ser t s t h a t effect ive p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t p r ogr a m s m u s t a s sis t lea d er s w it h t h e m a n a gem en t of “s op h is t ica t ed , p er -sist en t , a n d con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t p r ocess es … (s ch ool a d m in is t r a t or s ) a r e b ein g a s k ed t o lea d r es t r u ct u r in g effor t s in volv in g r a d ica l ch a n ge a n d a s s ocia t ed com -p lexit ies ” (F u lla n a n d St eigelb a u er, 1991, p. 337). Alt h ou gh F u lla n b elieves w e h ave a lon g w ay t o go in lin k in g lea d er sh ip p r ogr a m s t o follow -u p a n d im p r ovem en t on t h e job, h e d oes offer six r ecom m en d a t ion s for a m od el a d m in ist r a t or p r ofes sion a l d evel-op m en t p r ogr a m .

F ir st , h e su gges t s t h a t t h ese lea d er s h ip p r ogr a m s b e bu ilt on t h e p r in cip les of colle-gia lit y a n d p r ofession a l exch a n ge. T h ey m u st p r ov id e p r in cip a ls w it h m en t or s a n d ot h er d evelop m en t s u p p or t . Secon d ly, t h e p r ogr a m s m u s t b e in s t r u ct ion a lly focu sed . Wh ile Lit t le et a l. (1987) fou n d t h a t st a ff d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies h ave “m a in t a in ed a t r a d it ion of se p a r a t in g t h e t r a in in g of t ea ch er s fr om a d m in is t r a t or s ” (p. 97), F u lla n r ecom m en d s t h e es t a blish m en t of “colla b or a t ive wor k cu lt u r es ” (F u lla n et a l., 1990). T h ir d , t h e n ew s t a ff d evelop m en t p r ogr a m s m u s t in clu d e t h e p r e p a r a t ion of s ch ool b oa r d s, d ist r ict s u p er -in t en d en t s, a n d ot h er d ist r ict a d m -in is t r a t or s t o su p p or t sit e a d m in is t r a t or s in t h eir wor k w it h t ea ch er s a n d t h e im p lem en t a t ion of p r ogr a m ch a n ges. Fou r t h , u n iver s it ies m u s t a d a p t t h eir p r ogr a m s in s u p p or t of t h e n ew lea d er s h ip t r a in in g p r ogr a m s. F ift h , lea d er -s h ip t r a in in g p r ogr a m -s m u -s t r ecogn ize a n d a d d r es s t h e sh or t a ge of wom en a n d et h n ic m in or it ies in lea d er sh ip r oles t h r ou gh eq u a l op p or t u n it ies for p r om ot ion . Sixt h , F u lla n s t r es ses t h e p r ofession a l p a r t n er sh ip (t ea ch er, p r in cip a l, s u p er in t en d en t ) a sp ect of effect ive p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t . H e b elieves t h a t t h e effect ive p r ofes sion a l d evel-op m en t p r ogr a m r ecogn izes t h e “in t im a t e

in t er r ela t ed n ess” of t h e ed u ca t ion a l p r ofes-sion s (F u lla n a n d St eigelb a u er, 1991, p. 339). Ma r t in a n d J oh n son (1989) ca ll for m or e sop h ist ica t ed m et h od s of d em on s t r a t in g t h e va lu e a n d im p a ct of t r a in in g p r ogr a m s for sch ool a d m in ist r a t or s. T h e a u t h or s a ck n ow l-ed ge t h e p r olifer a t ion of a d m in ist r a t or d evel-op m en t p r ogr a m s a s w ell a s t h e con t r over sy su r r ou n d in g t h e effect iven ess of t h ese p r o-gr a m s : “Du r in g t h is a ge of ed u ca t ion a l a ccou n t a b ilit y a n d d ecr ea s in g r es ou r ces, it is im p er a t ive t h a t a ll p r ogr a m s d esign ed t o in cr ea se s t u d en t lea r n in g b e a p p r a ised for t h eir effect s. E ffor t s w h ich h ave lit t le im p a ct sh ou ld b e d isca r d ed , w h ile t h os e d em on st r a t -in g su ccess s h ou ld b e st u d ied , r e p lica t ed , a n d d issem in a t ed ” (p. 1). To a ss ess effect iven ess, t h e a u t h or s offer fou r “t a r get s” for t h e eva lu -a t ion of -a d m in is t r -a t or st -a ff d evelop m en t : 1 A d m in istra tor rea ction s: ob t a in in g u sefu l

feed b a ck fr om p a r t icip a n t s t o gu id e fu t u r e p r ogr a m d evelop m en t .

2 A d m in istra tor lea r n in g: self-r e p or t in g of ga in s or p r e-p ost t es t in g t o a cces s gr ow t h . 3 A d m in istra tor p er for m a n ce im p r ov em en t:

m ea su r in g t h e ext en t t o w h ich a d m in ist r a t or s a p p lied w h a t w a s lea r n ed t o t h eir on -t h e-job b eh av ior.

4 Orga n iz a tion a l im p r ov em en t: a s sessin g t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h e a d m in ist r a t or st a ff-d evelop m en t p r ogr a m a ffect ed or im p r oved t h e or ga n iza t ion a l or wor k en v i-r on m en t . Ma i-r t in a n d J oh n son (1989) a ck n ow led ge t h a t t h is la st a ssessm en t is t h e m ost d ifficu lt a n d ch a llen gin g t y p e of eva lu a t ion .

A st u dy by J oh n son (1986) sou gh t t o d et er -m in e t h e ext en t of u se of t h ese for e goin g t a r get s of eva lu a t ion by Color a d o sch ool d is-t r icis-t s w h en a ss essin g is-t h e effecis-t iven ess of t h eir a d m in ist r a t or st a ff d evelop m en t p r o-gr a m s. T h e r es u lt s of t h is st u dy a r e n ot e-wor t h y. Alt h ou gh 92 p er cen t of t h e sch ool d ist r ict s fu n d ed a n d r eq u ir ed a d m in ist r a t or d evelop m en t p r ogr a m s, on ly 46 p er cen t w er e even u sin g m ea su r es of p a r t icip a n t r ea ct ion a n d less t h a n 22 p er cen t w er e a t t em p t in g t o m ea su r e t h e effect s of t h e t r a in in g on job p er for m a n ce. F u r t h er m or e, w h ile 82 p er cen t of t h e d ist r ict s exp r essed over a ll s a t isfa ct ion w it h t h eir st a ff d evelop m en t p r ogr a m s, few w er e a ble t o d em on st r a t e t h a t a n y a d m in is-t r a is-t or or or ga n iza is-t ion a l im p r ovem en is-t h a d occu r r ed (J oh n son , 1986).

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d is t r ict s m u st va lu e a n d con vey t h e id ea t h a t gr ow t h a n d con t in u ed lea r n in g a r e v iew ed a s exp ect a t ion s of p r ofes sion a l p er for m a n ce for a d m in is t r a t or s, a s w ell a s t ea ch er s. T h e va lu e of p r ofes s ion a l d evelop m en t , a ccor d in g t o Da r esh , w ill in cr ea se if it is lin k ed m or e d ir ect ly t o d ist r ict a n d s ch ool p r ior it ies. Mor eover, a d m in is t r a t or in -ser v ice p r ogr a m s sh ou ld b e b a sed on t h e s p ecifi c goa ls, n eed s a n d in t er es t s of t h e p a r t icip a n t s.

Methodology

T h e p a r a m et er s p er t in en t t o t h e st u dy of lin k a ges b et w een p r in cip a l in ser v ice t r a in -in g, t ea ch er -in -s er v ice t r a -in -in g a n d follow -u p a ct iv it ies w er e fr a m ed a s follow s :

1 P r in cip a ls w h o a t t en d ed a d m in ist r a t ive in -s er v ice t r a in in g a n d w h o a lr ea dy in t e-gr a t ed k n ow led ge a n d s k ills a cq u ir ed t h er e in t o t h eir wor k in s ch ool w er e s elect ed for t h is st u dy.

2 All ot h er d a t a p er t in en t t o t ea ch er in s er v ice t r a in in g a n d follow u p w er e ga t h -er ed in t h e select ed s ch ools.

Sample of schools

T h e p u r p ose of t h is st u dy w a s t o exa m in e w h a t p r in cip a ls d o in t ea ch er in s er v ice a ct iv -it ies a ft er t h ey t h em s elves h ave exp er ien ced in -s er v ice a ct iv it ies d es ign ed t o cla r ify t h e p r in cip a l’s r ole in sch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t . T h e st u dy a lso sou gh t t o lea r n a b ou t h ow p r in cip a ls p er ceive t h eir r ole in t h e in s er -v ice a ct v it ies, w h a t k in d s of follow -u p a ct v i-t ies occu r a n d w h a i-t p er ce p i-t ion s i-t ea ch er s h ave of t h e follow -u p a ct iv it ies.

Ten s ch ool a d m in is t r a t or s w er e id en t ifi ed in on e cou n t y in Cen t r a l Ca lifor n ia w h o h a d p a r t icip a t ed in t h e Ca lifor n ia Sch ool Lea d er -sh ip Aca d em y (CSLA) w it h in t h e p a st fi ve yea r s. T h eir cou r se of st u dy in clu d ed t h e follow in g m od u les :

• t a k in g s t ock of you r self a s a n in st r u ct ion a l lea d er ;

• con s t r u ct in g a t h in k in g, m ea n in g-cen t er ed cu r r icu lu m ;

• bu ild in g a v ision u p on t h e p r in cip les of p ow er fu l lea r n in g;

• lea d in g s u ccess fu l ch a n ge effor t s in s ch ool;

• cr ea t in g s u cces sfu l sch ools t h r ou gh p r ofes -s ion a l d evelop m en t ;

• sh a p in g sch ool’s cu lt u r e t o im p r ove s t u d en t lea r n in g.

Of t h ese t en in d iv id u a ls, t h r ee w er e select ed for t h e s t u dy b eca u se t h ey p oss es s ed t h e fol-low in g ch a r a ct er is t ics:

• E a ch w a s cu r r en t ly s er v in g a s a n elem en -t a r y s ch ool p r in cip a l.

• E a ch h a d ser ved in t h is p osit ion for a t lea st t h r ee yea r s a n d n on e h a d p la n s t o r eloca t e or r et ir e.

• T h e t h r ee a d m in ist r a t or s in clu d ed b ot h m a le a n d fem a le.

• E a ch led in t h e d evelop m en t of a w r it t en m a s t er p la n for sch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t a n d a ls o t h e im p lem en t a t ion of n ew in st r u ct ion a l-cu r r icu la r goa ls d u r in g t h e p a st t h r ee yea r s. Alt h ou gh t h ese goa ls w er e on goin g, ea ch p r in cip a l a n t icip a t ed t h e a d op t ion of a d d it ion a l goa ls d u r in g t h e 1996-1997 sch ool yea r.

• E a ch r eq u ir ed t h eir t ea ch in g s t a ff t o r ea d a n d d iscu ss It’s E lem en ta r y – T a sk Force R ep or t (1992) a s a p a r t of st a ff d evelop m en t . Ad d it ion a lly, ea ch u t ilized t h e r e p or t a s a cen t r a l focu s for on goin g st a ff d evelop m en t a s it p er t a in ed t o r est r u ct u r in g t h e cu r r icu -lu m a n d im p r ov in g in st r u ct ion a l p r ocesses. • E a ch of t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls ser ved in a

d iffer en t t y p e of d ist r ict : on e u r b a n , on e sm a ll t ow n , a n d on e r u r a l.

• E a ch exp r essed en t h u sia sm a n d a

w illin gn ess t o p a r t icip a t e in t h is r esea r ch st u dy.

T h ese t h r ee elem en t a r y p r in cip a ls wer e a sk ed t o com m en t on sp ecific issu es, com p on en t s or p r ogr a m s a im ed a t sch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t a n d t h eir ow n lea d er sh ip a ct iv it ies or a ct ion s wh ich fa cilit a t ed t h a t im p r ovem en t . Th e p r in -cip a ls in d iv id u a lly gen er a t ed a set of com m on ch a r a ct er ist ics a n d cr it er ia t o d escr ib e t h eir sch ool im p r ovem en t en d eavor s:

• E a ch h a d su ccessfu lly for m u la t ed m ission or v ision s t a t em en t s w it h t h eir st a ffs, w h ich in clu d ed a gen er a l d efi n it ion of in st r u ct ion a l goa ls.

• E a ch b elieved t h a t t ea ch in g p r a ct ices b a sed on con st r u ct iv ist t h eor y w ill im p r ove st u -d en t lea r n in g. T h er efor e, ea ch en cou r a ge-d t h eir t ea ch in g st a ffs t o im p lem en t in st r u c-t ion a l sc-t r a c-t e gies w h ich r efl ecc-t ed sc-t u d en c-t en ga gem en t in t h e lea r n in g p r oces s. • E a ch h a d est a blish ed p r oced u r es for a cq u ir in g a n d p r ov id in g m a t er ia ls or r esou r ces t o a s sist t h eir t ea ch in g s t a ff in a ccom p lis h in g in st r u ct ion a l goa ls. • E a ch h a d wor k ed w it h t h eir t ea ch in g st a ffs

t o est a blis h a n d d evelop p or t folio sy st em s for t h e collect ion a n d a sses sm en t of st u d en t wor k .

• E a ch h a d gu id ed t h e for m u la t ion of sch ool im p r ovem en t ob ject ives w h ich cen t er ed on im p r ov in g t h e in st r u ct ion a l cor e of t h eir sch ools.

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• E a ch h a d d es ign ed , d evelop ed a n d fa cili-t a cili-t ed s cili-t u d en cili-t r ecogn icili-t ion a n d aw a r d p r ogr a m s.

• E a ch in volved t h e t ea ch in g s t a ff a n d p a r en t com m u n it y in s h a r ed d ecision -m a k in g p r oces s es w h ich s u p p or t t h e s ch ool’s in s t r u ct ion a l cor e.

• E a ch a t t em p t ed t o sp en d p or t ion s of t h e s ch ool d ay in cla s s r oom s wor k in g w it h t ea ch er s a n d st u d en t s t o gu id e a n d fa cili-t a cili-t e in scili-t r u ccili-t ion a l im p r ovem en cili-t .

• E a ch exp r ess ed a b elief t h a t t h ey cou ld p os it ively im p a ct t h e in st r u ct ion a l p r o-gr a m a t t h eir s ch ools t h r ou gh effect ive lea d er s h ip.

Data sources and collection procedures A ca se s t u dy a p p r oa ch w a s u s ed t o exa m in e t h e fou r r es ea r ch q u es t ion s (e.g. M er r ia m , 1988; Sea sh or e-Lou is a n d Miles, 1990; Sm it h a n d An d r ew s, 1989). Da t a w er e ga t h er ed fr om m u lt ip le s ou r ces u s in g a va r iet y of d a t a ga t h -er in g t ech n iq u es. Act u a l b eh av ior s of p r in ci-p a ls in in s t r u ct ion a l a n d s t a ff even t s w er e ob s er ved ever y t wo m on t h s (for a t ot a l of t h r ee t im es) d u r in g t h e secon d h a lf of t h e 1995-96 s ch ool yea r. Da t a for t h e ob s er va t ion s w er e r ecor d ed in a jou r n a l a n d in clu d ed a d es cr ip t ion of t h e set t in g, t h e p a r t icip a n t s a n d t h e a ct iv it ies in t er a ct ion s (M er r ia m , 1988). All a ct ion s of t h e p r in cip a l, r ela t ed st a ff in t er a ct ion s a n d som e n on -ver b a l in cid en ces w er e r ecor d ed .

As t o t h e secon d r es ea r ch q u es t ion (n a m ely p r in cip a ls’ p er ce p t ion s a b ou t t h eir b eh av ior s d es ign ed t o im p r ove t h e sch ool), t h e d a t a w er e ga t h er ed in s ever a l p er son a l in t er v iew s w it h ea ch p r in cip a l d u r in g t h e fi r s t h a lf of t h e 1995-96 s ch ool yea r. T h er e w er e t h r ee or fou r in t er v iew s w it h ea ch p r in cip a l. E a ch in t er -v iew w a s la r gely u n s t r u ct u r ed a n d on ly t h r ee sp ecifi c a r ea s w er e p la n n ed a h ea d of t im e: t h e p r in cip a l’s r ole in a s su r in g t h a t t ea ch er s a r e in for m ed a b ou t t h e n ew t ea ch in g m et h od olo-gies (e.g. coop er a t ive gr ou p, h a n d s on ); t h e exp ect a t ion s for im p lem en t in g t h es e m et h od ologies ; a n d t h e m on it or in g of t h e im p lem en -t a -t ion . All in -t er v iew s w er e r ecor d ed a n d t r a n s cr ib ed .

Da ta a bou t wh a t a ctu a lly h a ppen s in th e cla ssr oom settin g wer e collected th r ou gh obser -va tion s wh ich wer e r ecor ded. E a ch pr in cipa l ch ose two pr im a r y gr a de tea ch er s a n d two in ter m edia te gr a de tea ch er s wh o in h is/ h er opin ion , wer e str ivin g to fu lfil th e sch ool goa ls. On ce th ese tea ch er s a gr eed to be obser ved, th r ee obser va tion s wer e m a de th r ou gh th e sch ool yea r in ea ch of th eir cla ssr oom s. Th e th r ee foci of th e obser va tion s wer e on : 1 t ea ch er s’ su p p or t a n d su p er v is ion of

st u d en t s en ga ged in coop er a t ive gr ou p a ct iv it ies a n d in h a n d s -on p r oject s;

2 t ea ch er s’ fa cilit a t ion of op en d ia logu e, q u est ion in g a n d p r oblem s olv in g; a n d 3 t ea ch er m et h od for d et er m in in g s t u d en t

p r ogr ess.

T h e fou r t h r esea r ch q u est ion d ea lt w it h p er -ce p t ion s of t ea ch er s a b ou t t h e p r in cip a ls’ effect a n d in fl u en ce on cla ssr oom a ct iv it ies. At t h e en d of t h e sch ool yea r, a n in t er v iew w a s h eld w it h ea ch of t h e t ea ch er s t o a scer -t a in in for m a -t ion a b ou -t -t h e a b ove. T h ese in t er v iew s w er e q u it e s t r u ct u r ed . For exa m -p le, t ea ch er s w er e a sk ed a b ou t t h e fr eq u en cy of t h eir u sin g t h e in n ova t ive t ea ch in g m et h od ologies, t h e s t u d en t s’ p er for m a n ce a s a r es u lt of t h ese m et h od ologies, a n d w h a t t h e p r in cip a l d id t o en h a n ce sh a r ed p u r p ose, colle gia lit y, con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t a n d s u p p or t ive wor k in g con d it ion s.

Alt oget h er, t h en , fou r t y p es of d a t a sou r ces w er e u sed in t h is st u dy : ob ser va t ion s of in d i-v id u a l p r in cip a ls a n d t ea ch er s in t h e cla ss-r oom a n d in t ess-r v iew s w it h in d iv id u a l p ss-r in ci-p a ls a n d in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s. T h e r e ci-p ea t ed in t er v iew s w it h ea ch p r in cip a l a n d t h e r e p ea t ed ob s er va t ion s of ea ch t ea ch er r a ised t h e level of t h e t r u st wor t h in ess, r elia b ilit y a n d in t er n a l va lid it y of t h e fi n d in gs.

For a ll ca s es, a d et a iled con t en t a n a ly sis of t h e ga t h er ed in for m a t ion w a s con d u ct ed . T h e fi n d in gs a r e p r esen t ed b elow for ea ch

r esea r ch q u est ion . T h e a n a ly s is of t h e fi n d -in gs p er t a -in t o b ot h -in d iv id u a l fi n d -in gs a n d t o t h e en t ir e set of fi n d in gs.

Findings

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Afr ica n Am er ica n (4 p er cen t ) w h o com e fr om p oor fa m ilies.

T h e r es t of t h is s ect ion h igh ligh t s fi n d in gs by ea ch of t h e fou r r es ea r ch q u es t ion s.

Principals’ involvement in instruction/ staff in-service events

T h e follow in g even t s w er e ob ser ved d u r in g t h e 1995-96 sch ool yea r :

S ch ool A : St a ff Develop m en t Day – J a n u a r y Sch ool Sit e Cou n cil Meet in g – Ma r ch

St a ff Develop m en t Day – M a r ch S ch ool B : St a ff Develop m en t Day – J a n u a r y

Sch ool Sit e Cou n cil Meet in g – J a n u a r y

St a ff Develop m en t Day – M a r ch S ch ool C: In t er m ed ia t e Gr a d es Ar t icu la t ion

M eet in g – Ap r il

P r im a r y Gr a d es Ar t icu la t ion M eet in g – Ap r il

St a ff Develop m en t Day – M ay E a ch p r in cip a l ch ose h is/ h er ow n t im e, for -m a t , r ole a n d sp ecifi c a ct iv it ies for h is / h er r es p ect ive sch ool-w id e in st r u ct ion / s t a ff even t . Tea ch er s p layed a r ole in p la n n in g a n d p r es en t in g goa l-sp ecifi c t op ics a t t h e m a jor it y of t h e in -s er v ices d ay s. Sp ecifi c exa m p les follow.

Princ ipal A, January Staff De ve lo pme nt Day

Tea ch er s w er e a s k ed t o w r it e d ow n t h eir p h ilos op h ies a b ou t t ea ch in g r ea d in g. T h e p r in cip a l t h en d is cu s s ed s h a r in g p h ilos o-p h ies a n d colle gia lit y a n d sh a r ed h er o-p h iloso-p h y, w h ich en t a iled t h e n eed t o r ea ch ea ch st u d en t a n d t h e obliga t ion t o a lso r ea ch t h e d evelop m en t a lly slow er s t u d en t . An in v it ed cou n t y office of ed u ca t ion t r a in er d ist r ibu t ed h a n d ou t s a b ou t effect ive t ea ch in g of r ea d in g. Tea ch er s d iscu ss ed t h e con ce p t u a l im p lica t ion s of t h e m a t er ia l. Aft er t h e p r in cip a l con -clu d ed t h is h a lf of t h e d ay w it h “a ll t ea ch er s m u s t b e r ea d in g t ea ch er s,” t h e p r in cip a l in it ia t ed a d iscu s sion a b ou t t h e n ew m a t h s p r ogr a m . As ca n b e s u r m is ed , t h e p r in cip a l h a d p la n n ed m os t of t h e d ay ’s a ct iv it ies. Princ ipal A, Mo nthly (Marc h) Sc ho o l Site Ge ne ral Me e ting

T h e m eet in g b e ga n w it h som e a n n ou n cem en t s. A lea d t ea ch er (a p p oin t ed by t h e p r in -cip a l) led t h e cou n cil m em b er s in a v is it t o va r iou s cla ss r oom s. H a n d ou t s d escr ib in g t h e la n gu a ge a r t s a n d m a t h s cu r r icu la w er e d is t r ibu t ed . T h e p r in cip a l t a lk ed a b ou t h er d is -cu ss ion s w it h t ea ch er s r e ga r d in g t h eir in st r u ct ion a l n eed s. T h e r es t of t h e m eet in g w a s d evot ed t o m od ify in g t h e a n n u a l p a r en t su r vey for m a t . Mos t of t h e m eet in g h a d b een p la n n ed by t h e p r in cip a l.

Princ ipal A, Marc h Staff De ve lo pme nt Day A m en t or t ea ch er p r esen t ed a v id eo of a la n -gu a ge a cq u is it ion d evelop m en t p r ogr a m . T h e p r ogr a m ’s u s efu ln ess w a s d iscu ss ed . A t ea m of t ea ch er s w h o h a d a t t en d ed a m a t h s wor k -sh op p r esen t ed a p r op os ed m a t h s cu r r icu lu m st r u ct u r e. An ot h er t ea m of t ea ch er s d id t h e sa m e w it h a sp ecia l ed u ca t ion cu r r icu lu m . T h e secon d h a lf of t h e d ay w a s d evot ed t o gr a d elevel m eet in gs a n d colla b or a t ive p la n -n i-n g. T h e e-n t ir e d ay h a d b ee-n p la -n -n ed by t h e p r in cip a l t oget h er w it h t h e p a r t icip a t in g t ea ch er s.

Princ ipal B, January Staff De ve lo pme nt Day

In t h e fi r s t s t a ff d evelop m en t d ay in J a n u a r y in sch ool B t h e p r in cip a l a n d t h e fi n e a r t s sp ecia list s r ev iew ed t h e sch ool’s fi n e a r t s ob ject ives. T h e t ea ch er s w er e t h en a sk ed t o for m gr a d level gr ou p s a n d con sid er st r a t e-gies for t ea ch in g a ct iv it ies u s in g t h e fi n e a r t s cu r r icu lu m . T h e n ext t op ic in volved in for m a t ion p er t a in in g t o p or t folios, in clu d in g m et h -od s of a ssessin g st u d en t s’ wor k . Tea ch er s a ga in m et in gr a d e-level gr ou p s t o r ev iew t h e la t t er, m or e com p lica t ed t a s k s. T h e p r in cip a l a n d t h e p a r t icip a t in g t ea ch er s h a d p la n n ed t h e d ay t oget h er.

Princ ipal B, Sc ho o l Mo nthly (Marc h) Sc ho o l Site Co unc il Me e ting

T h e m eet in g con st it u t ed a follow -u p on t h e J a n u a r y st a ff d evelop m en t d ay. P a r en t s r ea ct ed t o t h e wor k d on e by t h e t ea ch er s w it h t h e fi n e a r t s cu r r icu lu m . T h e p r in cip a l t h en led a p la n n in g sess ion on fu r t h er st a ff d evel-op m en t d ay s (e.g. t evel-op ics – a t -r isk st u d en t s, t ech n ology ). T h e p r in cip a l h a d p la n n ed t h e m eet in g.

Princ ipal B, Marc h Staff De ve lo pme nt Day T h e p r in cip a l led d is cu ss ion s on a t r isk st u -d en t s a n -d on h ow t o sp en -d a n a -d -d it ion a l $20,000 w h ich t h e d is t r ict office h a d a lloca t ed . Tea ch er s w er e con cer n ed a b ou t a t r isk st u -d en t s. Defi n it ion s w er e offer e-d . At t r ibu t es w er e d escr ib ed . T h e d ist r ict coor d in a t or a n d a sch ool cou n selor w er e in v it ed t o ser ve a s r esou r ce p eop le. As t o t h e u s e of $20,000, t h e p r in cip a l su ggest ed t h e p oss ib ilit y of h ir in g a r ea d in g sp ecia list . T h e p r in cip a l h a d p la n n ed t h e d ay ’s a ct iv it ies.

Princ ipal C, April Inte rme diate Grade s Artic ulatio n Me e ting and April Primary Grade s Artic ulatio n Me e ting

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wh a t exist ed t h e yea r b efor e a n d fi n d in g w ay s t o im p r ove. A p a r t icu la r issu e in t h e p r im a r y gr ou p w a s t ea m t ea ch in g u sin g t h e n ew m a t h s cu r r icu lu m .

Princ ipal C, May Staff De ve lo pme nt Day T h e p r in cip a l p r ov id ed lea d er sh ip in s ever a l in st r u ct ion a l a r ea s. T h e n ot ion s of sch ool m is s ion s, v ision s a n d ch a n ge w er e fi r s t t a k en u p con ce p t u a lly a n d t h en d is cu s sed in p r a ct ica l t er m s. Br ea k in g in t o s m a ll gr ou p s, t ea ch er s s h a r ed t h eir feelin gs a b ou t t h e r ela t ion -sh ip of t h eir sch ool t o t h e s ch ool d is t r ict in t h es e a r ea s. N ext , t h e p r in cip a l in t r od u ced a sh or t s t or y a n d a ga m e w h er e d ecis ion m a k -in g w a s r eq u ir ed . Tea ch er s wor k ed a ga -in -in sm a ll gr ou p s a n d d isp layed a h igh level of self-effica cy.

Principals’ perceptions about their activities

T h e follow in g is a su m m a r y of t h e over a ll fi n d in gs of w h a t p er ce p t ion s p r in cip a ls exp r es s ed a b ou t t h eir in volvem en t in t h e t ea ch er in -s er v ice t r a in in g a ct iv it ies d es ign ed t o fa cilit a t e s ch ool-w id e im p r ove-m en t . M ost of t h e d a t a d es cr ib ed h er e w er e ga t h er ed fr om t h e in t er v iew s w it h t h e in d i-v id u a l p r in cip a ls a n d fr om t h e op in ion s t h e p r in cip a ls exp r es s ed d u r in g t h eir in volve-m en t in t h e in -s er v ice even t s w h ich w er e ob s er ved .

Pr in cip a l A v iew ed a ll of h er im p or t a n t lea d er s h ip a ct iv it ies d es ign ed t o fa cilit a t e s ch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t a s gu id ed by goa ls w h ich a r e s et ever y yea r. Du r in g t h e st u dy ’s d u r a t ion s h e saw h er self wor k in g p a r t icu -la r ly h a r d on : im p lem en t in g t h e p r oced u r es for u s in g t h e t ech n ology p la n , t h e s cien ce p la n a n d t h e m a t h s p la n ; a ss es sin g t h e r ea d -in g/ la n gu a ge a r t s p r ogr a m a n d r e p or t -in g a b ou t it t o t h e sch ool b oa r d ; a n d r ev isin g t h e s t u d en t p or t folio for m a t s. T h e p r in cip a l s u g-gest ed t h a t a n y v is it or t o t h e s ch ool in t h e p a s t t h r ee yea r s wou ld h ave fou n d t h e s ch ool u n d er goin g con st a n t , com p r eh en sive a n d w id e-s p r ea d ch a n ge. Sh e a lso r e p or t ed t h a t s h e d e p en d s gr ea t ly on h er t ea ch er s.

For Pr in cip a l B , t h e m os t im p or t a n t d im en -s ion -s of lea d in g -sch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t s eem ed t o b e a p u blic r ecogn it ion of t h e s t r en gt h of t h e t ea ch in g s t a ff, h is r ole a s a “p os it ive for ce” a n d a ck n ow led gm en t of a s m a n y good t h in gs “ou t t h er e” a s p os sible. T h e p r in cip a l r e p or t ed cor r es p on d in g in cid en ces of: r ely in g on h is t ea ch er s’ ju d gm en t t o in vest in exp a n d in g t h e v isu a l a n d p er for m in g a r t s p r ogr a m , p r ov id in g s u p p or t for a n ew ly a d op t ed h a n d s -on scien ce cu r r icu lu m , a n d s p en d in g cou n t less h ou r s on t h e p laygr ou n d in or d er t o get t o k n ow s t u d en t s a n d b e a cces-s ible t o t h em . P r in cip a l B w a cces-s n ot t ot a lly

h a p py w it h som e of t h e d ist r ict ’s p olicies a ssocia t ed w it h cu r r icu la r in it ia t ives. H e wou ld r a t h er t h ey w er e d evelop ed fi r st a t t h e sch ool sit e.

P r in cip a l C p er ceived h er lea d er s h i p con -t r i b u -t i on s -t o s ch ool-w i d e i m p r ovem en -t i n five m a jor w a y s. T h e fi r s t w a s t h e i n i t i a t i on a n d m a i n t en a n ce of s y s t em a t i c m on i t or i n g of t ea ch er s i n t h ei r a ccom p li s h m en t of i n s t r u ct i on a l goa ls. T h e s econ d focu s ed on d evelop i n g a n d en for ci n g a s ch oolw i d e s t u d en t d i s ci p li n e p la n . A t h i r d w a s r ees t a b li s h i n g a ch a i n of com m a n d i n w h i ch t h e t ea ch -er s feel a ccou n t a b le t o t h e p r i n ci p a l a n d n ot t o t h e d i s t r i ct s u p er i n t en d en t . Fou r t h , P r in -cip a l C a ls o v i ew ed i n cr ea s ed s t a ff colle gi a l-i t y a s a ver y l-i m p or t a n t a r ea of lea d er s h l-i p a ct iv i t i es a n d , fi n a lly, s h e con s i d er ed b r i n g-i n g t h e s ch ool a n d t h e d g-iver s e com m u n g-i t y g-i n con t a ct w i t h ea ch ot h er a s a n i m p or t a n t lea d er s h i p a ct iv i t y.

Resultant teachers’ activities in the classroom

T h e m a jor it y of t h e a ct iv it ies ob ser ved in t h e t wo fi r st gr a d e cla s sr oom s a n d t h e t wo fou r t h -gr a d e cla s sr oom s in S ch ool A in volved m a t h s lesson s. In on e of t h e fi r st -gr a d e cla sses t h e lesson s in volved a d d it ion , s u b t r a ct ion a n d cou n t in g of gr ou p s of t en s u sin g r ea l ob ject s a n d t h en w r it in g d ow n t h e cor r esp on d in g n u m b er. In t h e fou r t h -gr a d es, m a t h s w a s t a u gh t in a h a n d s-on fa sh ion w h ile d ea lin g w it h p r a ct ica l p r oblem s. Ot h er lesson s in t h e t wo fou r t h -gr a d e cla sses w er e d evot ed t o la n gu a ge a r t s a n d a r t s in on e cla s s a n d t o socia l m a n n er s a n d in t er p er s on a l r ela t ion s in t h e secon d cla ss.

In S ch ool B t wo fi r s t -gr a d e t ea ch er s a n d t wo fi ft h gr a d e t ea ch er s w er e ob ser ved . On e fi r st -gr a d e t ea ch er w a s ob ser ved t ea ch in g on e a r t lesson a n d t wo scien ce lesson s w it h a n em p h a sis on t ools. T h e a r t less on in volved lea r n in g a b ou t a fa m ou s p a in t er, r e p lica t in g on e of h is wor k s t h r ou gh a st r u ct u r ed d r aw -in g a n d sh a r -in g t h e p r od u ct w it h t h e en t ir e cla ss. T h e “t ools” lesson in volved lea r n in g a b ou t t h eir u se a n d cla ss ify in g t h em (e.g. cor d in t h e blin d s – p u lley ; p en cil s h a r p en er – gea r ).

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ga m e, Mor se code, t h e br a in , a n d t h e str ess ga m e).

Two fi r s t -gr a d e t ea ch er s a n d t wo fi ft h -gr a d e t ea ch er s w er e ob ser ved in S ch ool C. On e fi r s t -gr a d e t ea ch er focu sed on n ou n s a n d a d jec-t ives in jec-t h e fi r sjec-t les son a n d gr a p h ics in jec-t h e secon d a n d t h ir d lesson s. Les s on s u s ed s t u -d en t s a s lea -d er s of a ct iv it ies a n -d a s vot in g p a r t icip a n t s in d ecision -m a k in g. T h e ot h er fi r s t -gr a d e t ea ch er t a u gh t , r es p ect ively, m a t h , r ea d in g a n d bu ild in g w it h clay. In a ll of t h e les s on s t h er e w a s h eav y s t u d en t in volvem en t . T h e fi r s t les son in on e fi ft h -gr a d e cla s s focu sed on w r it in g a b ou t s elf. T h e ot h er t wo les s on s in volved st u dy in g t h e s t a t es in gr ou p s, u s in g a va r iet y of a ct iv it ies. T h e secon d fi ft h -gr a d e t ea ch er t a u gh t , r es p ec-t ively, s cien ce, s ocia l scien ce a n d gr a p h in g t ech n iq u es. M os t of t h e les son s w er e t a u gh t in s m a ll gr ou p s.

Teachers’ perceptions about their activities

T h e follow in g lis t s k ey it em s ea ch t ea ch er m en t ion ed a s h av in g b een cover ed in in ser v ice a ct iv it ies a n d w h ich con t r ibu t ed s ign ifi -ca n t ly t o t h e im p r ovem en t of lea r n in g in t h eir in d iv id u a l cla s s r oom s:

S ch ool A

F ir s t -gr a d e 1 – a llow in g s t u d en t s t o wor k in p a ir s or t h r ees – u s in g a p or t folio s y st em

t o collect st u d en t wor k a n d a s sess in g it for p r ogr es s

F ir s t -gr a d e 2 – u s in g a p or t folio s y st em t o collect st u d en t wor k a n d a s sess in g it for p r ogr es s

– a llow in g s t u d en t s t o wor k in p a ir s or t h r ees Fou r t h -gr a d e 1 – p r ov id in g a com for t a b le,

h a p py a n d s a fe en v ir on -m en t

– a llow in g exper im en ta tion w ith pr ocess

Fou r t h -gr a d e 2 – a llow in g st u d en t s t o wor k in p a ir s or t h r ees – con d u ct in g in t er v iew

a ssess m en t d u r in g st u -d en t wor k t im e

S ch ool B

F ir s t -gr a d e 1 – u s in g a p or t folio s y st em t o collect st u d en t wor k a n d a s sess in g it for p r ogr es s

– p r ov id in g for h a n d s-on exp er im en t a l lea r n in g F ir s t -gr a d e 2 – t ea ch in g in sm a ll gr ou p s

– p la n n in g w ell

F ift h -gr a d e 1 – u s in g a p or t folio s y st em t o collect st u d en t wor k

a n d a ss essin g it for p r ogr ess

– a llow in g st u d en t s t o wor k in p a ir s or t h r ees F ift h -gr a d e 2 – p r ov id in g for t a sk -b a sed

p r oject s

– a u gm en t in g (r a t h er t h a n r e p la cin g) on e’s cu r r icu -lu m w it h d ist r ict ’s su g-ges t ion s

S ch ool C,

F ir st -gr a d e 1 – u sin g a p or t folio sy st em t o collect st u d en t wor k a n d a ss essin g it for p r ogr ess

– con d u ct in g in t er v iew a ssess -m en t s d u r in g s t u d en t wor k t im e F ir st -gr a d e 2 – t ea ch in g in s m a ll gr ou p s

– p r ov id in g for h a n d s-on exp er im en t a l lea r n in g F ift h -gr a d e 1 – u sin g a p or t folio sy st em

t o collect st u d en t wor k a n d a ss essin g it for p r ogr ess

– t ea ch in g in s m a ll gr ou p s F ift h -gr a d e 2 – u sin g a p or t folio sy st em

t o collect st u d en t wor k a n d a ss essin g it for p r ogr ess

– con d u ct in g in t er v iew s a ssess m en t d u r in g st u -d en t wor k t im e

It sh ou ld b e n ot ed t h a t in a ll of t h e a b ove ca ses, t ea ch in g p r oced u r es r a t h er t h a n cu r -r icu lu m con t en t w e-r e m en t ion ed .

Discussion

T h e over a ll fi n d in gs in t h is s t u dy su p p or t t h e h y p ot h esis t h a t t h e fou r p er t in en t p h en om -en a a r e in t er r ela t ed . T h e r ela t ion sh ip is d e p ict ed in Ta ble I.

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fi n e a r t s cu r r icu lu m , s t u d en t a ss es s m en t , a t r isk s t u d en t s, t ech n ology a n d r em ed ia l r ea d -in g. P r -in cip a l C em p h a sized t ea m t ea ch -in g, t h e m a t h s cu r r icu lu m a n d t h e sch ool v is ion a n d m is s ion . In a ll ca s es m u ch of t h e wor k w a s d on e in s m a ll gr ou p s a n d t h en r es u lt s of t h e d is cu s s ion w er e sh a r ed w it h t h e gr ou p a s a w h ole. Wh ile t h er e w a s on ly s om e over la p a m on g t h e p r in cip a ls in con t en t (e.g. m a t h ) t h er e w a s com p let e sim ila r it y in t h e b eh av ior of p r in cip a ls: q u it e a ss er t ive a n d a ct ive. M os t of t h e p r in cip a ls’ in it ia t ives fou n d in t h is st u dy w er e a lso fou n d s p elled ou t in w r it in g a s d et a iled p la n s. T h a t m a t er ia l is ava ila ble in t h e s ch ool d ist r ict offices a n d in t h e Ca li-for n ia Sch ool Lea d er s h ip Aca d em y (CSLA).

Wh i le t h e s t a ff d evelop m en t a ct iv i t i es w er e v i ew ed by t h e t h r ee p r i n ci p a ls a s on ly on e of s ever a l s et s of ex p er i en ces d es i gn ed for i m p r ovem en t , a ll t h r ee p r i n ci p a ls h a d r ea s on t o con s i d er s t a ff d evelop m en t d ay s a s ex t r em ely i m p or t a n t . T h ey ea ch h i gh li gh t ed w h a t for t h em w er e i m p or t a n t p u r p os es a n d con t en t s of t h es e d ay s. P r i n ci p a l A, for ex a m -p le, s aw t h e a n n u a l es t a b li s h m en t of s ch ool goa ls a s cen t r a l. P r i n ci p a l B b eli eved t h a t t h e r ecogn i t i on of t h e s t r en gt h of t ea ch er s i s a n eces s a r y com p on en t of a s t a ff d evelop m en t d a y. T h e t h i r d p r i n ci p a l s aw t h e i n t er a ct i on b et w een t h e t ea ch er s a n d t h e p r i n ci -p a l a n d a m on g t ea ch er s t h em s elves a s i m p or t a n t . It ca n b e d ed u ced , fr om t h e a m ou n t of t i m e a n d effor t t h a t t h e p r i n ci p a ls d evot ed t o t h e s t a ff d evelop m en t d ay s, t h a t t h es e a d m i n i s t r a t or s b eli eve i n t h ei r effi -ca cy for s ch ool i m p r ovem en t .

T h e v is it s in t h e cla ss r oom s in t h e t h r ee sch ools w er e p la n n ed in su ch a w ay t h a t t h e ob s er ver wou ld h ave t h e op p or t u n it y t o s ee les s on s focu sin g on m a t er ia l d is cu s sed in st a ff d evelop m en t d ay s. T h e in t en t ion h er e w a s n ot t o t est t h e clos en es s b et w een w h a t t h e p r in cip a l or som eon e else r ecom m en d ed t o d o a n d w h a t w a s a ct u a lly d on e, bu t r a t h er t h e com for t level w h ich t h e t ea ch er a p p ea r ed t o h ave w h ile t ea ch in g t h e less on s. Als o of in t er -es t w a s t h e com for t w h ich t h e st u d en t s seem ed t o h ave in lea r n in g. T h e r a t ion a le w a s

t h a t a n in for m ed , r efl ect ive a n d w ell-p r e-p a r ed t ea ch er w ill feel com for t a ble a n d so w ill h is/ h er st u d en t s. Given t h e cr it er ia st a t ed a b ove, t h e ob ser ver saw 12 su ch com -for t a ble s it u a t ion s focu sin g on a va r iet y of su b ject m a t t er, a t t h e va r iou s gr a d e levels in t h e t h r ee sch ools. In m a n y of t h e ob s er va t ion s t h e ob ser ver n ot ed excellen t t ea ch in g a n d or ga n iza t ion a l t ech n iq u es. For exa m p le, som e t ea ch er s t a u gh t in sm a ll gr ou p s a n d p er m it t ed st u d en t s t o wor k in p a ir s a n d t h r ees. Ot h er s t ook gr ea t ca r e t o con st r u ct a st u d en t p or t folio. All of t h es e t ech n iq u es h a d b een in t r od u ced in t h e st a ff d evelop m en t d ay s.

Below is a r a n k or d er ed list (t en it em s) of fa ct or s m en t ion ed by t h e 12 t ea ch er s w h ich t h ey b elieved t h ey n ow u se in cla ss a s a r esu lt of wor k d on e in st a ff d evelop m en t d ay s (in p a r en t h esis is t h e n u m b er of t ea ch er s m en -t ion in g ea ch i-t em ):

1 Us in g a p or t folio sy s t em t o collect st u d en t wor k w h ich is t h en a s sessed for p r ogr ess (7)

2 Allow in g st u d en t s t o wor k in p a ir s (4) 3 Tea ch in g in s m a ll gr ou p s (3)

4 Con d u ct in g in t er v iew a ssess m en t d u r in g st u d en t wor k t im e(3)

5 P r ov id in g for h a n d s -on exp er im en t a l lea r n in g (3)

6 P r ov id in g for t a sk -b a sed p r oject s (1) 7 Allow in g exp er im en t a t ion w it h p r ocess (1) 8 P la n n in g w ell (1)

9 P r ov id in g a com for t a ble, h a p py a n d sa fe en v ir on m en t (1)

10 Au gm en t in g (r a t h er t h a n r e p la cin g) on e’s cu r r icu lu m w it h d ist r ict ’s su ggest ion s (1) Alt h ou gh it is b eyon d t h e scop e of t h is p a p er, it wou ld p r ob a bly n ot b e d ifficu lt t o p er su a d e r ea d er s of t h e u sefu ln ess a n d effica cy of t h e t en it em s m en t ion ed a b ove.

Implications

T h is r es ea r ch d es cr ib es a ct iv it ies a n d p er ce p -t ion s of in -ser v ice -t r a in in g d esign ed -t o im p r ove sch ools. T h e r esea r ch con ce p t u a lizes Table I

Princ ipals’ ro le in te ac he r in-se rvic e training and assume d re sultant o utc o me s

What princ ipals do in What princ ipals perc eive What teac hers do in What teac hers perc eive teac her in-servic e they do in teac her in- the c lassrooms as a they do in the c lassroom training for sc hool a servic e training a result of teac her in- a as a follow-up of teac her

improvement, whic h → → servic e training → in-servic e training

they learned to do in princ ipal in-servic e learning

(1 ) (2 ) (3 ) (4 )

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h ow exp er ien ces in p r in cip a l in -s er v ice ses-sion s r ela t e t o t ea ch er in -s er v ice wor k a n d t o cla s s r oom im p lem en t a t ion . T h is st u dy a lso su p p or t s t h e a r gu m en t t h a t in -ser v ice a ct iv i-t ies for s ch ool p er son n el a r e q u ii-t e s ign ifi ca n i-t in s ch ool im p r ovem en t . Clea r ly, follow -u p a ct iv it ies a r e cr u cia l t o t h e u lt im a t e s u ccess of a n y in -s er v ice t r a in in g.

F r om a p r a ct ica l p er sp ect ive, t h is r es ea r ch im p lies t h a t effect ive sch ool lea d er s:

• u s e k n ow led ge a n d s k ills w h ich t h ey a cq u ir e in t h eir ow n in -s er v ice a ct iv it ies t o im p r ove t h eir in ser v ice lea d er s h ip r es p on -s ib ilit ie-s a n d t h eir effect iven e-s -s in en h a n c-in g t ea ch er s’ effor t s t o im p r ove s t u d en t a ch ievem en t ;

• con s id er t ea ch er d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies a va lu a ble op p or t u n it y t o in it ia t e ch a n ge a s a fu n ct ion of t h e s ch ool n eed s;

• a r e aw a r e of w h a t t h ey ch oose t o d o in s t a ff d evelop m en t wor k a n d w h y a s w ell a s w h a t t h ey exp ect t o a ch ieve a s a r es u lt of t h is wor k ; a n d

• a r e su cces sfu l in con v in cin g t ea ch er s t o a cq u ir e a d d it ion a l k n ow led ge a n d s k ills in s t a ff d evelop m en t d ay s a n d im p lem en t ch a n ges in t h eir r es p ect ive cla s s r oom s a s a r esu lt of t h is t r a in in g.

Re p ea t ed v is it s in t h e cla s s r oom s a n d d iscu s-sion s w it h t ea ch er s r evea led a h igh d e gr ee of a t t em p t ed im p lem en t a t ion of ch a n ges p r o-p os ed in t h e t ea ch er in -s er v ice d eveloo-p m en t d ay s. Tea ch er s in t im a t ed t h a t t h e p r in cip a ls w er e h eav ily in volved in t h e im p lem en t a t ion in in d iv id u a l cla s s r oom s. T h is cer t a in ly im p lies t h a t effect ive in s t r u ct ion a l lea d er -sh ip for s ch ool-w id e im p r ovem en t r eq u ir es follow -u p wor k on t h e p a r t of t h e p r in cip a l w it h in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s.

M u ch r em a i n s t o b e d on e i n r es ea r ch wor k w h i ch focu s es on t h e r ole of t h e p r i n ci p a l i n s ch ool-w i d e i m p r ovem en t a s i t r ela t es t o t h e p r i n ci p a l’s ow n i n -s er v i ce wor k a n d h i s / h er i n volvem en t i n t h e t ea ch er s ’ i n s er v i ce a ct iv -i t -i es. For exa m p le, on ce t h ey h ave b een on t h e job for a w h i le, w h a t d o p r i n ci p a ls s t i ll n eed t o lea r n ? Wh a t ever t h ey la ck , ca n i t b e t a u gh t i n p r e-s er v i ce w or k ? H ow cen t r a l a r e t h e s ch ool d i s t r i ct ’s exp ect a t i on s i n s h a p i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h e p r i n ci p a l’s i n -s er v i ce wor k a n d t h e t ea ch er s i n -s er v i ce t r a i n i n g? Wi t h r e ga r d t o t ea ch er i n -s er v i ce t r a i n i n g, h ow a u t on om ou s i s t h e p r i n ci p a l i n d eci d i n g t h e con t en t of t h ei r a ct iv i t i es (a u t on om y fr om s ch ool d i s t r i ct , a u t on om y fr om t ea ch er s )? M os t i m p or t a n t , p er h a p s – w h a t a r e t h e m os t effect ive w ay s t o i n volve t ea ch er s i n p la n -n i -n g a -n d execu t i -n g t ea ch er i -n -s er v i ce d a y s s o t h a t a b a la n ce i s a ch i eved b et w een d oi n g w h a t t h e p r i n ci p a l b eli eves s h ou ld b e d on e

a n d gr a n t i n g a s en s e of gen u i n e a u t on om y t o t h e t ea ch er s ?

T h e lin k a ge b et w een h ow t ea ch er s p er ceive t h e in -s er v ice a ct iv it ies a n d w h a t t h ey d o in t h e cla ssr oom s r est s la r gely on t h e t ea ch er s t h em s elves. Wh a t t h e exist in g a n d t h e p ossi-ble sp ecifi c r oles of t h e p r in cip a l in t h is r e ga r d a r e, is st ill a n op en q u est ion . T h e d a t a collect ion t ech n iq u es u sed in t h is st u dy (e.g. ob ser va t ion s, in t er v iew s) w ill n ot su ffice t o a n sw er t h is q u est ion . Mor e com p r eh en sive q u est ion n a ir es w ill h ave t o b e d evelop ed w h ich wou ld fu r t h er cla r ify h ow p r in cip a ls a n d t ea ch er s see t h e p r in cip a l’s r oles in fol-low -u p a ct iv it ies.

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