CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Students’ Perception
1. Definition of Perception
Perception is one of the important psychological aspects because by perception we know about the kinds of phenomenon which exist in our environment. People have different perceptions on an object. It can be positive or negative ways.
Perception is automatically related to certain nature of human being, which his or her psychological features. Perception is a process which starts from the sense of organ. That is a process related to acceptance of information by human brain that is said that during the process a person continually interacts with his or her environment (Slameto, 2010: 102). While Mulyana (2007: 179) stated that perception is internal process enable us to choose, organize, and interpret the stimuli from environment, those process can influence our manner.
From the explanation above it can be concluded that perception is a process which starts from the vision to form a response that occurs in person which is come from external and internal factors through its senses.
2. Factor Affecting Perception
Everyone has different tendency in seeing the same thing. The difference can be affected by many factors, including the internal and external factors (Walgito, 2001: 103).
a. Internal Factors
Internal factor is a factor which comes from an individual. This factor depends on personal psychological such as thoughts, feelings, willingness, needs, sex, motivations, attentions, etc. Every human being has different characteristics and temperament which are also shaped by individuals’ family and individuals’ environment.
b. External factors
This is a factor which comes from outside of individual such as stimulus, environment culture, believe. Our life relates with environment, both physical and social environment.
3. Process of Perception
a. Stimulus
Perception arises because of the response to the stimulus. The first step of perceptions is sensation. All of the sensations enter through humans’ senses. Sensation will influence the stimulus. b. Registration
The stimulus will be transferred by nerve to brain. Then it will be processed by brain. In this process, human being recognizes the stimulus.
c. Interpretation
Stimulus entering into the brain will be interpreted, construed, and given meaning through a complicated process.
Relation in this study is the perception given by the students as a result of stimuli that first given by the teacher in the form of questions.
4. Basic Principles of Perception
For the teacher, knowing and implementing basic principles of perception is very important. There are many basic principles that should be known by English teachers in order to know students characteristics so the communication between teachers and students will be effective, those are:
It means that perception of someone or group is different from others. The perception sometimes will be different even though they talk about the same things.
The teacher can predict students’ perception better in the next lesson by knowing this from previous lesson being taught.
b. Perception is selective
It means that perception that is given by someone or group come based on their attention. It depends on their brain or motivation about the object. In this case, the teacher should choose what parts need to be pressure to get more attention from the students.
c. Perception has arrangement
It means that perception of someone is an arrangement about an object. It is influenced by their brain, motivation, experience, and etc. For example, someone maybe will have negative perception toward English lesson because of their bad experience before related to English itself. In other words, the arrangement of the object can give influence toward the perception about that object.
d. Perception is influenced by hope and readiness
Hope and readiness of a person will determine which messages will be selected for admission, laid out, and how the message will be interpreted.
For the teacher, this principle means that the perception could be more or less the same with the perception shared by other classes with the same subject matter being taught (Slameto, 2010: 102-105).
5. Students’ Perception
Students are the main and the most important resource in the teaching and learning process. Students can learn from teachers, while teachers cannot teach without students (Danim, 2010: 1). All of the learning process always begins with perception.
Students’ perception is the process of preferential treatment of students toward information they get from an object, in this study is teachers’ classroom questions. Through observations with their senses, students can interpret the observed object.
It is important to understand students’ perceptions of how they perceive teachers’ questions and answer questions in class. Those perceptions affect students’ willingness to participate actively in question and answer sessions (Cole, 1994: 184).
B. Classroom Interaction
Interaction has a similar meaning in the classroom. It can be defined as a two-way process between the participants in the learning process (Dagarin, 2004:5).
can increase their language store and use all they possess of the language (Brown, 2001: 165).
1. Participants
Teacher and learners are two major roles in the classroom. The communication and interaction happen among them in the teaching and learning process. These are the participants in classroom interaction, depending on who communicate with whom:
a. Teacher – learners
The first type of interaction (teacher – learners) is established when teacher talks to the whole class at the same time. Teacher as the leader and decides about the type and the process of the activity. b. Teacher – learner/a group of learners
The second type of interaction (teacher – learner/a group of learners) is established when the teacher refers to the whole class, but expect only one student or a group of students to answer. It is often used to evaluate the individual of students. This form can also be used for an informal conversation between teacher and learner. c. Learner – learner
The third type of interaction (learner – learner) is called as “pair work”. Students have to finish assignment in pairs.
The last type of interaction (learners – learners) is particularly useful for encouraging interaction among student. They work collaboratively in group discussion.
2. Teachers’ Role
In traditional classroom, teachers had the dominant talk. It means that they are as the main role in filling students’ empty head with the knowledge. Students only learn from the teacher who became an all-knowing leader (Dagarin, 2004: 7). This situation has already changed. Nowadays teachers got many roles depending on different classroom situations.
Teachers can help students to develop their interaction skills in a foreign language. There are some ways of teachers’ help such as: using body language, giving appropriate topic, and asking questions (Dagarin, 2004: 10).
Dealing with appropriate topic, teachers can stimulate students’ interaction by choosing appropriate topics. Young students prefer talking about sport, computers, music, movie, gadget, and etc (Dagarin, 20014: 11). Students can say a lot more about the topic of their interest than something they do not really know well.
Classroom interaction can be established through asking and answering questions. In the classroom, the teacher often asks the questions to the learners and the learners answer those questions. This interaction takes place between the teacher and the class and/or small groups in the class and/or individuals.
C. Teachers’ Classroom Questioning
1. Classroom Questioning
While Cole and Chan (1994: 170) stated that Classroom Questioning is an interactive process which aims to engage students in the learning process and draw forth thoughtful responses. It is used by teachers to encourage students to think and respond to the content delivered by the teachers. In classroom setting, cotton (2003 as cited in Hasan, 2013: 1) claimed that teacher questions and students’ answers are considered a powerful teaching approach if they are used to expose contradictions, challenge assumption, and lead to new wisdom and knowledge. To vitalize the classroom questions, teacher should design questions which can expand students’ knowledge and promote creative thinking.
A number of researchers (Brown and Wragg, 2001; Cotton, 2003; Richard, 1996; Morgan; 1991 as cited in Hasan, 2012: 1) stated the following functions that teacher questioning serves in the classroom: a. asking questions helps teachers to follow up and elaborate on what
student has said.
b. students can openly express their ideas through answering teacher questions.
c. the act of questioning let students benefit from various explanations of the material by their peers.
e. asking questions enable teachers to control class discipline and student behavior
2. The Importance of Teachers’ Classroom Questioning
Question in language classroom is a common technique used in teaching. The goals are to check students’ understanding, enhance students’ involvement, and to promote students’ creative thinking in classroom interaction. Moreover Richard and Lockharts (1994: 185) stated the following as justifications for the importance of questions in teaching:
a. it can stimulate and maintain students’ interest.
b. it can encourage students to think and focus on the content of the lesson.
c. it can enable teachers to check students’ understanding. d. it can encourage students’ participation in a lesson.
through the interaction between the teacher and students and among the students themselves.
Acocording to Azerefegen (2008) students’ skills of questioning, critical thinking, and negotiation of meaning and interaction abilities can be promoted if teachers are well aware of the students’ right to ask question. By allowing students to ask questions, can motivate, initiate, and engage them in various language activities to discover answers to teachers questions and find out the solutions to problems posed by their teachers.
Students should also be encouraged to ask questions and answer teachers’ question. If students are given the opportunity to talk, teachers would be able to gain feed back on students’ problems in some parts of the lesson. Despite the fact that teachers take a major role in classroom questioning students also need to practice the way of forming different questions.
3. The Purposes of Teachers’ Classroom Questioning
Teachers ask questions in class to achieve different purposes. Each has implications for the practical aspects of teaching. The major purposes are listed as follows:
b. Questions focus attention on particular aspects of subject matter. One way to make students focus to important features of a topic is direct questions at those features.
c. Questions assess knowledge and understanding of subject matter. Teachers often ask questions to determine if students have knowledge and understanding of subject matter being taught.
d. Questions stimulate cognitive activity. Questions can be used to prompt both low and high level cognitive processes.
e. Questions prompt group discussion. Questioning can be used as preliminary activity to assist group discussion.
f. Questions control social behavior. Questions are often used to encourage desirable behavior or restrict undesirable behavior (Cole and Chan, 1994: 172).
While Cotton (1998: 1) stated the following purposes of teachers’ classroom questioning are:
a. to develop interest and motivate students to become actively involved in lessons
b. to evaluate students’ preparation and check on homework or seatwork completion
c. to develop critical thinking skills and inquiring attitudes d. to review and summarize previous lessons
e. to nurture insights by exposing new relationships
4. The Types of Teachers’ Classroom Questioning
Another categorization, which will be fundamental for this study, for teachers’ questions was presented by Wajnryb (1992, as cited in Hamiloglu, 2012: 3) as follows:
a. Yes/No question
Those are questions which can be answered only by ‘yes’ or ‘no’. For example:
“Do you understand?”
“Here is a picture of woman. Have you seen her face before?” b. Short-answer or retrieval-style questions
Short-answer or retrieval-style questions are questions which require short responses of the person being asked. For example: “What did she say about the movie?”
c. Open-ended questions
Those are questions which will elicit more language. For example: “What kinds of sports do you like? Why?”
“How do you feel now?” d. Display questions
Display questions are questions which request information that has been already known to the questioner. For example: “What color is this pen?”
e. Referential questions
f. Non-retrieval or imaginative questions
Non-retrieval, imaginative questions are questions that do not require the learner to retrieve given information but instead call on inferred information or information in which an opinion judgment is called for. For example: “What do you think of the writer’s judgment?”
D. Relevant Previous Research
Azerefegn in 2008 conducted a research entitled Types of teacher’ questions and questioning Strategy towards eight teachers and 170 students randomly selected two private schools, Keranyo Alpha Secondary School and Saint Mary Catholic Secondary School. Observation was used to collect the data of types of questions given by four teachers in the classroom. Questionnaire was used to know students’ responses of teachers’ questions. The results indicated that from the total (83) questions, 64 or 77.1% of questions were knowledge questions and 19 or 26.9% were comprehension questions. The distribution of questions which were given by the teachers was answered 54.21% voluntarily. Students’ responses whether they were fear to ask questions in EFL classroom indicated that 68.75% said yes and 31.25% said no.
EFL teachers and the students from two schools where 11 teachers did their practicum and observed the classes for their practicum course requirements. The sample size was too small for making generalizations on questions types preferred by teachers of EFL, but the main aim of the study was to gain a perspective on which question types more preferred by EFL teachers were.
The qualitative data were gathered from the observations of 11 teachers by analyzing the findings in terms of questions asked by the teachers and their appropriate types in above mentioned theoretical perspective. The quantitative data were gathered from the analysis of the quantity of questions used by the EFL teachers. Having 6.12% of 98 questions, non-retrieval/imaginative questions take the last position in the study. It was clearly seen that though this type of questions was of great importance in learning process, they were not commonly preferred by teachers.
E. Basic Assumption
