Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 ,3 [1997] 1 1 7 –1 3 0 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]
American higher education system: consumerism
versus professorialism
Steve O. M ichael
As s is tant Pro fe s s o r o f Highe r Educ atio n Adminis tratio n, Graduate Sc ho o l o f Educ atio n, Ke nt State Unive rs ity, Ke nt, Ohio , USA
Suggests that institutions of higher education in the USA encounter problems that are unique to the market environ-ment. These problems include competition for resources, escalating costs, and resource constraints. In response to these problems, higher edu-cation systems within this kind of environment tend to borrow strategies from orga-nizations operating under the most competitive environ-ment – the business sector. Discusses specifi c strategies adopted by institutions of higher education in North America. Examines how these strategies have affected the culture of higher education. Discusses the shift occurring between the consumerism-professorialism continuum. Calls for the need to under-stand the dual nature of higher education so that strategies can be selectively adapted.
Introduction
In a ver y in t er es t in g t ext , Bir n b a u m (1988) ob ser ved t h e r a t h er p a r a d oxica l n a t u r e of t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em (p. 3). H e ob ser ved t h a t , on on e h a n d , t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em r em a in s t h e en v y of t h e wor ld . At h om e, it con t in u es t o en joy a sizea ble favou r a ble b a la n ce of t r a d e, m ea n in g t h a t t h e n u m b er of for eign s t u d en t s en r ollin g in US in s t it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion fa r ou t n u m b er s t h e n u m b er of US s t u d en t s s eek -in g ed u ca t ion a b r oa d . Ab r oa d , t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em con t in u es t o a t t r a ct t h e a t t en t ion of sch ola r s, a s d em on st r a t ed by t h e la r ge n u m b er of for eign jou r n a ls fea t u r in g a r t icles a b ou t t h is sy s t em , a n d a s d em on -st r a t ed by t h e la r ge n u m b er of US s ch ola r s m a k in g p r esen t a t ion s a t in t er n a t ion a l con -fer en ces a b ou t t h e p r oblem s a n d s u ccess es of t h e s y s t em of h igh er ed u ca t ion in t h e USA.
H ow ever, in s p it e of t h is sizea ble favou r a ble b a la n ce of t r a d e, cr it icis m of t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em h a s b een on t h e in cr ea s e, m ost n ot a b ly in t h e USA it self. It is fa ir t o s ay t h a t n ever in t h e h is t or y of t h e sy s t em h ave t h er e b een so m a n y exp er t a n d n on -exp er t p r on ou n cem en t s on h ow t h e sy st em h a s fa iled st h e n a st ion a n d on w h a st solu -t ion s -t o -t h is fa ilu r e -t h e lea d er s of h igh er ed u ca t ion s h ou ld a d op t t o r ever s e t h e sit u a -t ion . T h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca -t ion s y s-t em is in cr ea s in gly s een a s a p oor ly m a n a ged en t er p r is e a n d , a s n ot ed by Keller (1983), it is a m on g “t h e lea st bu s in ess lik e a n d [lea st ] w ell m a n a ged of a ll or ga n iza t ion s” (p. 5).
Given t h is p a r a d ox, Bir n b a u m (1988) m a d e t h r ee r a t h er in t er es t in g s p ecu la t ion s: p er -h a p s t -h e sy st em is s u ccess fu l b eca u s e it is p oor ly m a n a ged ; p er h a p s t h e sy st em is s u c-ces s fu l bu t ca n b e im p r oved w it h a b et t er m a n a gem en t ; or p er h a p s t h e sy st em is s u c-ces s fu l in s p it e of it s m a n a gem en t . H e fu r t h er n ot ed t h a t if t h e fi r s t scen a r io h old s, a n im p r ovem en t of t h e m a n a gem en t of t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em m ay b e cou n t er -p r od u ct ive. If t h e s econ d s cen a r io h old s, im p r oved m a n a gem en t m ay en h a n ce t h e su cces s of t h e sy s t em . If t h e t h ir d s ce-n a r io h old s, im p r oved m a ce-n a gem ece-n t w ill h ave n o b ea r in g on t h e su cces s of t h e s y s t em a n d t h u s w ill con s t it u t e a w a st e of effor t .
A fou r t h s p ecu la t ion is a lso p os sible: it is a scen a r io u n d er w h ich a ll t h r ee of Bir n b a u m ’s sp ecu la t ion s a r e t r u e. In t h e fi r s t in st a n ce, w h a t is seen a s “p oor ly m a n a ged ” m ay d e p en d on t h e en t r e p r en eu r ia l len s es b ein g u sed t o exa m in e t h e h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em , a n d t o t h e ext en t t h a t t h e sy s t em d iffer s fr om t h e bu s in ess sect or, a w illy -n illy a d op t ion of bu sin ess st r a t e gies m ay b ecom e cou n t er -p r od u ct ive in h igh er ed u ca t ion . In t h e secon d in st a n ce, t o con clu d e t h a t t h er e is n o a sp ect of t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em t h a t ca n b en efi t fr om im p r oved m a n a gem en t w ill con st it u t e a sp ecia l a ca d em ic a r r oga n ce (Sh a p ir o cit ed in O’Br ien a n d Siya h i, 1989). F in a lly, a s h a s b een t h e exp er ien ce of m a n y a d m in ist r a t or s w it h in t h is sy s t em , som e m a n a gem en t st r a t e gies t h a t h ave b een a d op t ed in h igh er ed u ca t ion h ave lit t le or n o effect on in st it u t ion a l ou t com es. Con seq u en t ly, t h ese st r a t e gies m ay w ell b e seen a s a n exer cise in fu t ilit y, es p ecia lly a s fa r a s t h e a ca d em ic sid e of t h e sy s t em is con -cer n ed .
Ad m in ist r a t or s a n d s t u d en t s of Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion m u st con t in u e t o exa m in e t h e n a t u r e of t h eir or ga n iza t ion s, b eca u se it is on ly w it h a good u n d er st a n d in g of h igh er ed u ca t ion , a n d m ost es p ecia lly it s p ecu lia r cu lt u r e, t h a t t h ey ca n k n ow w h ich st r a t e gies t o a d op t a n d w h ich on es t o r eject . It is w it h t h is p u r p ose in m in d t h a t t h is p a p er r ev iew s m od els for cla ss ify in g h igh er ed u ca t ion sy s-t em s, in a n effor s-t s-t o sh ow d iffer en ces in s-t h e en v ir on m en t s of h igh er ed u ca t ion . T h e p a p er a ls o exa m in es con st r a in t s t h a t a r e com m on t o h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em s loca t ed w it h in en v ir on m en t s t h a t a r e id en t ica l t o t h a t of t h e USA a n d id en t ifi es st r a t e gies t h a t h ave b een a d op t ed in t h e USA t o r ed u ce t h es e
con st r a in t s. F u r t h er m or e, t h e p a p er d iscu sses t h e im p lica t ion s of s t r a t e gies a d op t ed for t h e con su m er ism -“p r ofessor ia l-ism ” con t in u u m a n d con clu d es w it h a r em in d er of t h e d u a lis m of con t r ols in t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em .
Models for classifying higher
education systems
T h e t er m “h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em ” is oft en u sed to descr ibe a collection of post-secon da r y The author wishes to thank
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
in s t it u t ion s op er a t in g w it h in a d efi n ed geogr a p h ica l a r ea a n d u n d er a s p ecifi c “gover n -m en t ” a d -m in ist r a t ion . In t h is p a p er, a s t a t e h igh er ed u ca t ion r efer s t o a p ost -secon d a r y ed u ca t ion sy st em w it h in a p a r t icu la r st a t e, w h ile t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em r efer s t o t h e a ggr e ga t e of a ll t h e st a t e s y s t em s a n d p er h a p s s h ou ld h ave b een t er m ed t h e “Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion s u p r a s y s t em ”.
Bir n b a u m (1988) r em in d s u s t h a t m od els a r e m er ely r e p r es en t a t ion s of p h en om en a u n d er con s id er a t ion a n d t h a t t h ey ca n n eit h er b e r igh t n or w r on g bu t ca n b e m or e or less in for m a t ive. Good m od els, t h er efor e, p r ov id e in sigh t fu l w ay s t o u n d er st a n d com -p lex -p h en om en a a n d h igh er ed u ca t ion s y s-t em s (a s com p lex p h en om en a ) w ill con s-t in u e t o b en efi t fr om d iscu ss ion s of m od els t h a t a id ou r u n d er s t a n d in g of su ch s y s t em s. T h e a u t h or of t h is p a p er is w ell aw a r e of t h e m a n y cr it icism s s u r r ou n d in g a t t em p t s t o d evelop m od els for cla s s ify in g h igh er ed u ca t ion s y s-t em s. For exa m p le, is-t is le gis-t im a s-t e s-t o q u ess-t ion t h e n eed for t h e exer cise given t h e com p lexit y of h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s wor ldw id e. It is a ls o le git im a t e t o b e con cer n ed a b ou t a n a t t em p t t o lu m p t oget h er s y s t em s t h a t a r e s eem in gly d iffer en t , on t h e b a sis of on ly a few fa ct or s. H ow ever, it is t h e a u t h or ’s v iew t h a t t h e com p lexit y of a t a sk m u st n ot b e a n excu s e t o d eclin e fu r t h er d elib er a t ion s. M od -els t h a t p r ov id e a d d it ion a l or a lt er n a t ive w ay s of look in g a t h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s d es er ve t h e a t t en t ion of sch ola r s.
Un d er s t a n d in g h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s a n d t h e p olit ica l-econ om ic for ces sh a p in g t h em a r e cr u cia l t o t h e a p p r ecia t ion of t h e dy n a m ics w it h in in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u -ca t ion . For exa m p le, h ow h igh er ed u -ca t ion r es p on d s t o t h e q u es t ion of a ccou n t a b ilit y (in t er m s of w h a t p er for m a n ce in d ica t or s t o a d op t ) w ill d e p en d on w h et h er t h e s y s t em is op er a t in g u n d er a socia l d em a n d a p p r oa ch or a m a n p ow er a p p r oa ch , a n d w h et h er t h e s y s t em is op er a t in g u n d er a cen t r a lized or d ecen -t r a lized a p p r oa ch . A few of -t h es e m od els a r e d is cu s s ed in t h is p a p er.
Sever a l m od els for cla s s ify in g h igh er ed u -ca t ion s y s t em s exist in t h e lit er a t u r e. Som e of t h es e a t t em p t t o id en t ify com m on elem en t s a m on g va r iou s h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s w it h t h e a im of cla s s ify in g a n d ca t e gor izin g t h em a ccor d in gly. Ot h er s s eek t o cla s s ify h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s on t h e b a s is of p olit ica l-econ om ic sy s t em s w h ich s h a p e t h e s t r u ct u r e of h igh er ed u ca t ion . For exa m p le, t h e level of econ om ic d evelop m en t in fl u en ces t h e t y p e of h igh er ed u ca t ion a d op t ed fr om cou n t r y t o cou n t r y (E u r ich , 1981). Sim s (1982) ob s er ved t h a t h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s wou ld b e in fl u en ced by a cou n t r y ’s econ om ic goa ls a n d a gen d a .
H ow ever, E u r ich (1981) n ot ed t h a t “p er h a p s even m or e for m a t ive t h a n econ om ic a sp ect s in in fl u en cin g h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em s is t h e p olit ica l st r u ct u r e a n d st a n ce of t h e gov -er n m en t ” (p. 7) a n d t h a t “h igh -er ed u ca t ion sy st em s, in over a ll s t r u ct u r e, m ir r or t h e p olit ica l for m of t h eir cou n t r ies ” (p. 28). On t h is n ot e, May n a r d (1982) p r ov id ed a collec-t ive-lib er a l con collec-t in u u m m od el for cla ssify in g h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em s. May n a r d st a t ed t h a t :
Wh ile t h e ob ject ive of t h e collect ive/ s ocia list id eology is t o a lloca t e t h e s ca r ce ed u ca -t ion r esou r ces r e ga r d les s of -t h e a b ili-t y a n d t h e w illin gn es s of t h e r ecip ien t s t o p ay, t h e ob ject ive of t h e m a r k et / lib er a l id eology is t o a lloca t e on t h e b a sis of t h e a b ilit y a n d t h e w illin gn es s of t h e r ecip ien t t o p ay (p. 60).
In a n a t t em p t t o cla ss ify h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em s a lon g t h e cen t r a lized -d ecen t r a lized con t in u u m m od el, Millet t (1979) exp la in ed t h a t :
t h e m or e p lu r a lis t ic t h e s ocio-p olit ica l st r u c-t u r e, c-t h e gr ea c-t er c-t h e d iver sic-t y in c-t h e or ga n i-za t ion a n d op er a t ion of in s t it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion . T h e m or e m on olit h ic t h e socio-econ om ic s t r u ct u r e, t h e m or e p os it ive a n d d et er m in ed a r e t h e t h r u s t s t ow a r d gover n m en t a l p la n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t . T h e m or e ev id en t t h e u n it a r y or ga n iza -t ion a l a r r a n gem en -t of -t h e n a -t ion , -t h e m or e h igh ly cen t r a lized a r e t h e p la n n in g p r a ct ices a n d ct h e few er ct h e ev id en ces of in s ct ict u t ion a l a u t on om y. T h e m or e fed er a lly or ga -n ized t h e -n a t io-n , t h e m or e p la -n -n i-n g p r a c-t ices a r e d ecen c-t r a lized a n d c-t h e gr ea c-t er a r e t h e d iffer en ces in t h e t y p es of h igh er ed u ca -t ion p la n n in g a n d m a n a gem en -t p r a c-t iced (p p. 14-15).
T h er efor e, t h e m or e d ecen t r a lized t h e p olit i-ca l sy st em is, t h e m or e p lu r a list ic t h e socio-p olit ica l st r u ct u r e, a n d t h e m or e d iver se t h e or ga n iza t ion a n d op er a t ion of in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion w ill b e. As n ot ed by Cla r k (1983), cou n t r ies w it h h igh ly cen t r a lized gover n m en t a l con t r ols su ch a s It a ly, Sp a in , a n d Sw ed en , a d op t a s in gle s y st em of h igh er ed u ca t ion , w h ile cou n t r ies w it h fed er a l sy s-t em s (i.e. d ecen s-t r a lized con s-t r ols) su ch a s Ca n a d a , Au s t r a lia , Mexico, a n d t h e USA, t en d t o a d op t m u lt ip le sy s t em s of h igh er ed u ca -t ion . I-t is a lso gen er a lly -t r u e -t h a -t cou n -t r ies lea n in g t ow a r d s a u t h or it a r ia n ism t en d t o b e h igh ly cen t r a lized , w h ile cou n t r ies lea n in g t ow a r d s d em ocr a cy t en d t o a d op t a d ecen t r a l-ized a p p r oa ch .
Cla r k (1983) p r ov id ed a st a t e-m a r k et m od el for cla s sify in g h igh er ed u ca t ion sy s t em s. T h is m od el is b a sed on Lin d blom ’s exp la n a -t ion (a s ci-t ed in Cla r k , 1983):
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
h ier a r ch ica l, bu r ea u cr a t ic, a n d gover n m en t a l sy st em s a r ise fr om t h e a u t h or it y r ela t ion , so m a r k et s y st em s a r is e fr om t h e s im -p le exch a n ge r ela t ion … N ot m er ely a m et h od for r es h u fflin g t h e p os session of t h in gs, exch a n ge is a m et h od of con t r ollin g b eh av iou r a n d of or ga n izin g co-op er a t ion a m on g m en (p. 138).
Given t h is u n d er s t a n d in g, Cla r k (1983) p r o-ceed ed t o loca t e six cou n t r ies on t h e st a t e-m a r k et con t in u u e-m sh ow n in Ta ble I. Cla r k (1983) a r gu ed t h a t n a t ion s oft en m ove a lon g t h is con t in u u m a n d H ext a ll (1988) ob ser ved t h a t Br it a in h a s sh ift ed con s id er a b ly t ow a r d s t h e m a r k et lin k a ge. M ich a el (1991) exp la in ed t h a t “w h ile Ca n a d a m ay b e d es cr ib ed a s a d ecen t r a lized sy s t em a t t h e n a t ion a l level, t h er e is a con s id er a ble bu r ea u cr a t ic in fl u -en ce on h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s a t t h e p r ov in cia l level of gover n m en t ” (p. 62). T h er e-for e, a t t em p t s t o cla ss ify h igh er ed u ca t ion sy s t em s is oft en fr a u gh t w it h p r oblem s.
N ever t h eles s, M ich a el (1991) ob ser ved t h a t m os t of t h e m od els in exist en ce t en d t o d escr ib e h igh er ed u ca t ion fr om t h e su p p ly sid e a n d a r gu ed for a m od el t h a t d escr ib es b ot h t h e su p p ly a n d d em a n d sid es of h igh er ed u ca t ion . F igu r e 1 p r ov id es a b a sis for cla s -sify in g t y p es of h igh er ed u ca t ion s y st em s
t h a t t a k es in t o con sid er a t ion b ot h sid es. T h e fi r st con t in u u m d escr ib es t h e ext en t t o w h ich a h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em op er a t es u n d er a socia l d em a n d a p p r oa ch a n d a m a n p ow er p la n n in g a p p r oa ch . Un d er t h e socia l d em a n d a p p r oa ch , d em a n d for p r ogr a m m es a n d cou r ses d et er m in es t h eir ava ila b ilit y. Un d er t h e m a n p ow er p la n n in g a p p r oa ch ,
p r ogr a m m e offer in gs w ill b e b a s ed on a p r e-d et er m in ee-d m a n p ow er n eee-d for va r iou s p r o-fes sion s. T h er efor e, if a cou n t r y d ecid es t h a t X n u m b er of t ea ch er s a n d Y n u m b er of m ed -ica l d oct or s n eed t o b e p r od u ced w it h in t h e n ext fi ve yea r s, t h e a lloca t ion of r esou r ces w ill r efl ect t h is d ecis ion . T h e secon d con t in -u -u m d escr ib es t h e ext en t t o w h ich a h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em is cen t r a lized or d ecen t r a l-ized . A cen t r a ll-ized s y st em im p lies t h a t a cen t r a l co-or d in a t in g a gen cy d et er m in es p r ogr a m m e offer in gs a n d r esou r ce a lloca -t ion s, w h ile a d ecen -t r a lized sy s-t em leaves t h is d ecision t o ea ch in st it u t ion .
Ba sed on t h is m od el, h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em s ca n b e cla s sifi ed a s op er a t in g u n d er a fr ee m a r k et (q u a d r a n t I), a p a r t ia l m a r k et (q u a d r a n t II), a con t r olled sy s t em (q u a d r a n t III), a n d a con t r olled com p et it ion (q u a d r a n t IV). P er h a p s it is a p p r op r ia t e t o n ot e a t t h is ju n ct u r e t h a t econ om ist s a r e in a gr eem en t t h a t a p er fect ly fr ee m a r k et is on ly a n a ca d e-m ic con ce p t s in ce t h e con d it ion s of fr ee en t r y a n d exit a n d p er fect p r od u cer a n d con su m er k n ow led ge of m a r k et a ct iv it ies h a r d ly exist in r ea lit y. How ever, t h e u se of t h e t er m “fr ee m a r k et ” d oes n ot p r esen t a n y ser iou s p r ob -lem s a m on g econ om ist s, bu t t h e lim it a t ion of t h e t er m is w ell u n d er st ood a n d a p p lies in t h is p a p er.
T h e sh a d ed p or t ion (q u a d r a n t I) r e p r esen t s h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em s ch a r a ct er ized by h igh com p et it ion , gr ea t er p a r t icip a t ion by p r iva t e in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion , gr ea t er fr eed om a n d ca p a cit y of p ot en t ia l st u d en t s t o ch oose a m on g su b st it u t a ble in st i-t u i-t ion s, a gr ea i-t er r elia n ce on i-t h e m a r k ei-t for ces t o d r ive u p ed u ca t ion a l q u a lit y, a n d a gr ea t er in st it u t ion a l a u t on om y a n d a ca d em ic fr eed om . T h is q u a d r a n t r e p r esen t s t h e ca t e-gor y t o w h ich Am er ica n a n d Ca n a d ia n sy s-t em s of h igh er ed u ca s-t ion a n d sever a l sy ss-t em s in West er n n a t ion s b elon g (p er h a p s m or e for t h e Am er ica n sy st em t h a n t h a t of Ca n a d a ). It is n o su r p r ise, t h er efor e, t o fi n d t h a t sy st em s of h igh er ed u ca t ion in Wes t er n n a t ion s a r e st r u gglin g w it h sim ila r p r oblem s, a lt h ou gh t h e in t en sit y a n d sever it y of ea ch p r oblem d iffer s fr om cou n t r y t o cou n t r y.
Constraints in American higher
education systems
Cer t a in p r oblem s a r e p ecu lia r t o h igh er ed u -ca t ion sy st em s lo-ca t ed w it h in t h e sh a d ed Table I
State -marke t c o ntinuum
Sweden Franc e UK Canada Japan USA
State Market
administration linkage
Figure 1
Type s o f marke t s ys te ms o f highe r e duc atio n (adapte d fro m Mic hae l, 1 9 9 1 , p. 6 6 )
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
p or t ion of F igu r e 1. T h ese con s t r a in t s or p r oblem s in clu d e com p et it ion for s t u d en t s, com p et it ion for r es ou r ces in gen er a l, fi n a n -cia l con s t r a in t s, in cr ea sed d em a n d for a ccou n t a b ilit y, a q u est for a m or e cu st om er -or ien t ed s er v ice, con fl ict in g gover n m en t a ct ion s / in a ct ion , a n d p r oblem s a s s ocia t ed w it h in t er n a l cost m a n a gem en t .
Competition for students
T h e la n d s ca p e of t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca -t ion s y s -t em ch a n ged w i-t h -t h e p r ed ic-t ion of en r olm en t d eclin e. Sever a l w r it er s p r ed ict ed a sh or t fa ll in t h e n u m b er of p eop le s eek in g h igh er ed u ca t ion . For exa m p le, Good a ll (1980) a t t r ibu t ed t h e sh or t fa ll t o “a d im in is h in g p ool of h igh -sch ool gr a d u a t es ” (p. 12). Sch m id t (1989) p r ed ict ed t h a t “b et w een 1988 a n d 1996, t h e n u m b er of h igh s ch ool gr a d u -a t es w ill d r op 12 p er cen t fr om 2.76 m illion t o a 20-yea r low of 2.44 m illion ” (p. 367). E ven in s t it u t ion s t h a t h ave t r a d it ion a lly en joyed exces s d em a n d for a d m is sion cou ld n ot t u r n a d ea f ea r t o t h ese p r ed ict ion s.
As a r es u lt of t h e blea k en r olm en t for eca st s, w r it er s p r ed ict ed k een com p et it ion for s t u -d en t s in h igh er e-d u ca t ion . T h e 1980s a n -d ea r ly 1990s w er e p r ed ict ed t o b e p er iod s in w h ich in st it u t ion a l su r v iva l wou ld b e t h e n u m b er on e con cer n of a d m in is t r a t or s of h igh er ed u ca t ion . Bu t in cr ea sed com p et it ion for st u d en t s w a s goin g t o h a p p en w it h or w it h ou t t h e p r ed ict ion . An in cr ea sin g n u m -b er of gover n m en t s w er e t y in g en r olm en t s t a t is t ics w it h fu n d in g a n d , w h er e a n en r olm en t d r iven bu d get w a s a d op t ed , a d olm in is t r a -t or s of in s -t i-t u -t ion s of h igh er ed u ca -t ion w er e a u t om a t ica lly in d u ced t o b ecom e m or e com -p et it ive for st u d en t s.
Wh ile s om e in s t it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca -t ion in -t h e USA exp er ien ced gr ow -t h in t h eir en r olm en t s, ot h er in s t it u t ion s d id exp er ien ce en r olm en t d eclin e a n d w h ile som e p r ogr a m m es exp er ien ced gr ow t h , ot h er p r o-gr a m m es w er e d is con t in u ed or r ed u ced a s a r es u lt of en r olm en t d eclin e. Cu r r en t ly, som e in s t it u t ion s a r e s t ill exp er ien cin g en r olm en t d eclin e.
Changing demography of students
E n r olm en t for eca st er s w er e a ccu r a t e a s t o t h e d im in is h in g p ool of h igh -sch ool gr a d u a t es a n d a s t o t h e in cr ea sed com p et it ion for s t u -d en t s in h igh er e-d u ca t ion , bu t over a ll, en r ol-m en t s t a t is t ics b ot h in Ca n a d a a n d in t h e USA d id n ot d eclin e in t h e m a n n er p r ed ict ed . T h e d eclin e in t r a d it ion a l coh or t s w a s offset by a n in cr ea se in t h e n u m b er of n on -t r a d i-t ion a l si-t u d en i-t s en r ollin g in in s i-t ii-t u i-t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion in b ot h cou n t r ies. For exa m p le, Uh l a n d M a cKin n on (1992) r e p or t ed t h a t :
p a r t icip a t ion r a t es in cr ea sed con s id er a bly [in Ca n a d a ] … in p a r t a s a r efl ect ion of t h e d esir e of m a n y p eop le ou t s id e t h e t r a d i-t ion a l 18-24 a ge gr ou p i-t o follow colle ge or u n iver sit y cou r ses. In 1990, s t u d en t s 25 yea r s of a ge a n d old er con s t it u t ed 24 p er cen t of a ll fu ll-t im e u n iver sit y en r olm en t s com p a r ed t o 18 p er cen t in 1975. T h eir n u m -b er s gr ew fr om a -b ou t 70,000 in 1975 t o n ea r ly 130,000 in 1990. In 1976, old er s t u d en t s con st i-t u i-t ed 12 p er cen i-t of fu ll-i-t im e colle ge en r ol-m en t s cool-m p a r ed t o 16 p er cen t in 1988, t h eir n u m b er s in cr ea sin g fr om 11,000 t o 50,000. As a r esu lt , t h es e old er st u d en t s a r e b ecom in g ver y m u ch a p a r t of t h e u n iver sit y a n d col-le ge scen es (p. 48).
(T h e Ca n a d ia n scen e m ay, h ow ever, b e sh ow -in g a ct u a l d ecl-in e -in en r olm en t cu r r en t ly.) Sim ila r occu r r en ce w a s r e p or t ed in t h e USA by Webb (1993) w h o n ot ed t h a t :
t h e la t e 1970s w it n es s ed t h e b e gin n in g of sign ifi ca n t d em ogr a p h ic p h en om en a in p ost -secon d a r y ed u ca t ion . T h e b ir t h r a t e in t h e Un it ed St a t es d ecr ea sed b et w een 1965 a n d 1980, w h ich r es u lt ed in a d ecr ea se in t h e n u m b er of t r a d it ion a l colle ge-a ge (18-24) st u d en t s. T h is d ecr ea se h a s b een offs et by a n in cr ea se in n on -t r a d it ion a l s t u d en t s. T h e n on -t r a d it ion a l p op u la t ion in clu d es wom en , m in or it y gr ou p s, im m igr a n t s, h a n d ica p p ed in d iv id u a ls, a n d old er p eop le (p. 205).
Also, P a r k er a n d Mor r ow -An d er son (1989) r e p or t ed t h a t “colle ge p a r t icip a t ion r a t es a n d in cr ea sed n u m b er s of a d u lt s a t t en d in g col-le ge h ave blu n t ed t h e a n t icip a t ed im p a ct of few er 18-yea r -old s on colle ge en r olm en t s” (p. 342). In a d d it ion , t h e m a ssive u n em p loy -m en t a s socia t ed w it h t h e econ o-m ic sh ift (fr om in d u st r ia l t o h igh t ech n ology t o in for -m a t ion -r ela t ed job s) in t h e USA, r esu lt ed in in cr ea sed d em a n d for h igh er ed u ca t ion .
Ap a r t fr om t h e in cr ea se in t h e p a r t icip a -t ion r a -t es of a d u l-t s-t u d en -t s, -t h e p r op or -t ion of m in or it y s t u d en t s en t er in g in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion in t h e USA in cr ea sed con -sid er a bly d u r in g t h e 1980s. T h e p r esen ce of a d u lt a n d m in or it y st u d en t s in a la r ge n u m b er in Am er ica n in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca -t ion a ffec-t ed som e of -t h e ser v ices p r ov id ed by t h ese in st it u t ion s.
Competition for resources
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
w it h in s t it u t ion s ou t s id e t h e colle ge sect or even t h ou gh t h ey m ay b e clos er in p r oxim it y (M ich a el, 1991).
H ow ever, a d m in is t r a t or s h ave h a d t o wor r y n ot on ly a b ou t com p et it ion fr om ot h er in s t i-t u i-t ion s w ii-t h in a n d ou i-t sid e i-t h eir seci-t or s, bu i-t fr om ot h er n on ed u ca t ion r ela t ed socia l ser -v ice s ect or s. For exa m p le, Sca n n ell (1993) n ot ed t h a t :
In 1982, N ew Yor k sp en t $330 m illion for a 28,000-p r ison er p op u la t ion . In 1992, t h e St a t e of N ew Yor k sp en t $1.3 b illion , fou r t im es w h a t w a s s p en t in 1982, for a 61,000-p r ison er p op u la t ion or a 270 p er cen t in cr ea s e in st a t e fu n d in g in con s t a n t d olla r s. Du r in g t h a t s a m e p er iod of t im e, fu n d in g for h igh er ed u ca t ion in t h is st a t e fell 8 p er cen t in con s t a n t d olla r s (p. 2).
In Oh io, fr om 1984-1985 t o 1994-1995, t h e p r o-p or t ion of t h e st a t e gen er a l r even u e fu n d a lloca t ed t o h igh er ed u ca t ion d ecr ea sed fr om 14.1 p er cen t t o 12.3 p er cen t . Wit h in t h a t p er iod of t im e, t h e p r op or t ion goin g in t o Med ica id ju m p ed fr om 19.4 p er cen t t o 32.1 p er cen t (P la in Dea ler s, 1995). In gen er a l, J on es ob s er ved t h a t :
econ om ic con d it ion s h ave for ced va r iou s s t a t e p r ior it ies in t o sh a r p er focu s a n d , a t t im es, in t o d ir ect con fl ict . Oft en m a n d a t ed by a le gisla t ive s t a t u t e, st a t e com m it m en t s t o elem en t a r y a n d s econ d a r y ed u ca t ion , w elfa r e, a n d ot h er p r ogr a m m es h ave b een m a in t a in ed a t t h e exp en s e of h igh er ed u ca -t ion . N o-t on ly is -t h e fi sca l p ie ge-t -t in g s m a ller in r ea l t er m s, t h e s izes of t h e p ieces a r e ch a n gin g (p. 6).
Given t h e in cr ea sed com p et it ion for
r esou r ces, t h er efor e, a d m in is t r a t or s of in st i-t u i-t ion s of h igh er ed u ca i-t ion h ave sou gh i-t a n d con t in u e t o sea r ch for r es ou r ce a t t r a ct ion st r a t e gies. Som e of t h es e s t r a t e gies a r e a im ed a t p olit icia n s, w h ile ot h er s a r e cr ea t ive w ay s of a t t r a ct in g r es ou r ces fr om p r iva t e s ou r ces.
Financial constraints in higher education
Clos ely a k in t o t h e p r oblem of in cr ea sed com p et it ion for r es ou r ces is t h e p r oblem of fi n a n -cia l con s t r a in t s in h igh er ed u ca t ion . T h er e a r e s ever a l fa ct or s r es p on s ible for fi n a n cia l con s t r a in t s in t h is s ect or. Ap a r t fr om cu t s in gover n m en t a p p r op r ia t ion s in s om e p la ces or bu d get in cr ea ses t h a t a r e a t les s t h a n in fl a -t ion a r y r a -t es in o-t h er p la ces, in s-t i-t u -t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion con t in u e t o exp er ien ce con s t r a in t s d u e t o ot h er fa ct or s.
P er h a p s ch ief a m on g t h ese fa ct or s is in st i-t u i-t ion a l in a b ilii-t y i-t o con i-t a in in i-t er n a l cosi-t s. Mos t cos t s w it h in a n in s t it u t ion a r e fi xed . For exa m p le, p er s on n el cos t s, w h ich oft en m a k e u p a b ou t 60-70 p er cen t of op er a t in g cos t s, a r e p r im a r ily fi xed . T h is im p lies t h a t in s t it u -t ion a l lea d er s h ave li-t -t le or n o con -t r ol over
t h ese cost s, es p ecia lly w it h in a sh or t -t er m p er iod . Com p ou n d in g t h e p r oblem of p er son -n el cost s is t h e i-n cr ea si-n g u -n io-n iza t io-n of st a ff a n d fa cu lt y on m a n y ca m p u ses. Som e fa cu lt y m em b er s h ave fou n d it con ven ien t t o t r a d e p a r t of t h eir a ca d em ic fr eed om for t h e p r ot ect ion of a u n ion . Un ion s d r ive u p cost s a n d lim it t h e con t r ol of in st it u t ion a l lea d er s on p er son n el cos t s.
Also, cost s of p er iod ica ls, jou r n a ls, a n d p r in t ed m a t er ia ls h ave con t in u ed t o r ise fa st er t h a n t h e in fl a t ion a r y r a t e. T h ese cost s a r e la r gely ou t s id e t h e con t r ol of a d m in ist r a -t or s of h igh er ed u ca -t ion . In a d d i-t ion , a s soci-et y p r es ses for m or e a ccou n t a b ilit y in h igh er ed u ca t ion , in st it u t ion s st r ive t o p u t for w a r d p r ogr a m m es a im ed t ow a r d s ed u ca t ion a l excellen ce. E xcellen ce, in t h ese ca ses, is m ea -su r ed a s in p u t s t o t h e s y st em . Ma n y of t h ese in p u t s – for exa m p le, in cr ea sin g lib r a r y ca p a cit y, h ir in g d ist in gu ish ed fa cu lt y m em -b er s, en su r in g a ccr ed it a t ion , u p gr a d in g ava ila ble t ech n ologies, t o m en t ion bu t a few – for ce in st it u t ion s t o in cu r m or e exp en ses. H en ce, a d m in is t r a t or s of h igh er ed u ca t ion a r e ca u gh t u p in a cir cle of sea r ch in g for fu n d s t o in cr ea se excellen ce (d efi n ed a s level of in p u t ) a n d excellen ce d r iv in g u p cost s.
Increased demand for accountability
Accou n t a b ilit y issu es in h igh er ed u ca t ion ca n b e d iv id ed in t o t wo b r oa d a r ea s : d em a n d for in cr ea sed p r od u ct iv it y a n d d em a n d for st ew a r d sh ip. In t h e USA, p u blic cr it icism a ga in st fa cu lt y p r od u ct iv it y h a s b een on t h e r ise. Cr it icis m r a n ges fr om fa cu lt y m em b er s’ ligh t t ea ch in g loa d s t o p oor t ea ch in g sk ills; fr om fa cu lt y m em b er s’ fr ivolou s a n d in con se-q u en t ia l r esea r ch t o con t r over s ia l a n d ir r ele-va n t p u blica t ion s; a n d fr om fa cu lt y m em b er s’ u n ava ila b ilit y t o a dv ise st u d en t s effect ively t o p r ofessor s’ u n ava ila b ilit y t o p r ov id e a d e-q u a t e ser v ices t o t h e w id er com m u n it y, exce p t for a few, of cou r se.
In t er m s of st ew a r d sh ip, h igh er ed u ca t ion h a s b een cr it icized for it s h igh cos t s, w a st efu l m a n a gem en t , fa t fa cu lt y a n d a d m in ist r a t ive sa la r ies, a n d in a b ilit y t o r ela t e cost s t o p r o-d u ct iv it y. As Bu r r u p a n o-d Br im ley (1982) p oin t ed ou t , “m a n y t a xp ayer s v iew p u blic ed u ca t ion a s a n u n n ecess a r ily la r ge in d u st r y w h ose h igh cost s r esu lt in exces sive t a x bu r -d en s on m a n y p eop le a n -d t oo la r ge a -d r a in on t h e p u blic T r ea su r y ” (p. 2).
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
a im ed a t t h e K-12 ed u ca t ion , st a t em en t s su ch a s t h is h ave som e effect s on h igh er ed u ca t ion , esp ecia lly in t h e m in d s of t h os e w h o fi n d it d ifficu lt t o s e p a r a t e t h e h igh er fr om t h e low er level of ed u ca t ion .
To in cr ea se a ccou n t a b ilit y, s om e gover n -m en t s h ave i-m p le-m en t ed -m a n d a t or y p r o-gr a m m e r ev iew s w it h a n a im t o d is con t in u e s om e of t h e p r ogr a m m es t h ey con s id er d u p lica t ive. Also, t en u r e h a s b een u n d er a t t a ck in m a n y s t a t es. In a d d it ion , sever a l gover n m en t s a r e r ev iew in g t h eir fa cu lt y wor k loa d s w it h t h e a im of in cr ea sin g t h e n u m b er of h ou r s t h a t fa cu lt y t ea ch p er w eek . T h e fed er a l gover n m en t is cu r r en t ly r ev iew -in g h ow -in s t it u t ion s ch a r ge -in d ir ect cos t s t o r es ea r ch gr a n t s w it h t h e a im of r ed u cin g t h es e cos t s. In d eed , t h e d em a n d for a ccou n t -a b ilit y in h igh er ed u c-a t ion h -a s n ever b een h igh er t h a n it is t od ay.
Conflicting government actions
Du r in g t h e r econ s t r u ct ion er a (a p er iod im m ed ia t ely follow in g t h e Secon d Wor ld Wa r ), gover n m en t s of w es t er n n a t ion s a d op t ed t h e id eology of in st r u m en t a lism t ow a r d s t h eir h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s. To t h is en d , h igh er ed u ca t ion w a s gen er ou sly fu n d ed a n d , in t h e USA, for exa m p le, m a n y n ew in s t it u t ion s w er e es t a blis h ed w h ile t h e exist in g on es exp a n d ed t h eir fa cilit ies
(Mich a el a n d H old aw ay, 1992). T h is w a s n eces-s a r y in or d er t o r eeces-s p on d t o t h e u p eces-s u r ge in d em a n d for h igh er ed u ca t ion . Ra p id exp a n -s ion of h igh er ed u ca t ion con t in u ed for a lit t le less t h a n t wo d eca d es w it h a p h ilos op h y of r ed u ct ion is m (M ich a el a n d H old aw ay, 1992). Wit h t h is p h ilos op h y ca m e a n ot h er s t r a t e gy t o m a k e in s t it u t ion s m or e en t r e p r en eu r ia l.
Tod ay, h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s a r e a ct ively in volved in cr ea t ive r es ou r ce gen er a -t ion a n d -t h eir gover n m en -t s (le gisla -t u r es a n d gover n in g b oa r d s) seem a ct ively t o su p p or t s u ch in it ia t ives. H ow ever, a d m in ist r a t or s of in s t it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion a r e exp er ien cin g con fl ict in g m ess a ges fr om t h es e gov -er n m en t s. On on e h a n d , t h -er e is t h e m ess a ge t h a t in s t it u t ion s s h ou ld b ecom e m or e p r oa c-t ive in gen er a c-t in g fu n d s on c-t h eir ow n , c-t h a c-t is, b ecom e m or e en t r e p r en eu r ia l; bu t on t h e ot h er h a n d , gover n m en t s a r e a d op t in g m ea su r es t o con t r ol t h ese in s t it u t ion s. For exa m -p le, m a n d a t ed ext er n a l -p r ogr a m m e r ev iew con d u ct ed by t h e gover n m en t of t h e St a t e of Oh io (USA) is con t r a r y t o t h e sp ir it of en t r e-p r en eu r ia lis m . Sim ila r ly, t h e a t t em e-p t t o ca e-p t u it ion fees t h a t in s t it u t ion s ca n ch a r ge (a t lea st in t h e USA) is a ls o con t r a r y t o t h e in ju n ct ion t h a t r eq u ir es t h ese in st it u t ion s t o s elf-gen er a t e fu n d s. M a n y gover n m en t a ct ion s t o in cr ea se efficien cy a r e com p a t ible w it h a s y s t em loca t ed in q u a d r a n t III (F igu r e
1), yet t h e p r esen t t h r u st a n d id eology a r e loca t ed in q u a d r a n t I.
Constraints-reduction strategies
adopted
Dill (1991) p oin t ed ou t t h a t :
If a ca d em ic in s t it u t ion s a r e en ga ged in a com p et it ive m a r k et – com p et in g for s ca r ce fi n a n cia l r es ou r ces fr om m u lt ip le a n d s h ift -in g su p p or t er s, com p et -in g for a ble s t u d en t s a n d fa cu lt y, com p et in g for s ocia l p r es t ige – t h en it is a r gu ed t h ey sh ou ld a d op t t h e m a n -a ger a l t ech n iq u es of m -a r k et -b -a sed bu s i-n ess: st r a t e gic p la i-n i-n ii-n g, m a r k et ii-n g, a i-n d m a n a gem en t con t r ol (p. 183).
T h er efor e, in r esp on se t o t h ese con st r a in t s, a d m in ist r a t or s of in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u -ca t ion h ave sou gh t a n d a d op t ed sever a l st r a t e gies, som e of w h ich a r e bu sin ess-r ela t ed . Wh ile ea ch in st it u t ion of h igh eess-r ed u ca t ion h a s d iffer en t exp er ien ces or su c-cesses w it h t h ese st r a t e gies, a gen er a l d escr ip t ion of t h e im p a ct of t h e s t r a t e gies ca n b e p r ov id ed . Sp ecifi c st r a t e gies im p lem en t ed t o r ed u ce con st r a in t s fr om t h e en v ir on m en t of h igh er ed u ca t ion in clu d e en r olm en t m a n -a gem en t , m -a r k et in g or r es ou r ce -a t t r -a ct ion , st r a t e gic p la n n in g, a n d t ot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t , a n d sever a l effor t s t o en su r e a ccou n t -a b ilit y.
Enrolment management
In r es p on s e t o t h e a p p a r en t ly d ecr ea sin g p ool of t h e 18-24 a ge gr ou p, in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion a cr oss N or t h Am er ica (Am er ica n con t in en t in clu d in g Ca n a d a ) a d op t ed r ecr u it -m en t st r a t e gies. Wr it er s on h igh er ed u ca t ion a d m in ist r a t ion p r ed ict ed fi er ce com p et it ion a m on g in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion for st u d en t s, a n d in st it u t ion s w er e a dv ised t o a d op t a p r oa ct ive a p p r oa ch t o t h e p r oblem s of en r olm en t d eclin e. Con seq u en t ly, m a n y in st it u it ion s sit a r it ed it o exp lor e sit r a it e gies it o con -fr on t t h ese p r oblem s, a n d a d m in ist r a t or s t u r n ed t o t h e bu sin ess sect or for gu id a n ce. T h e cor p or a t e wor ld w a s a ls o q u ick in offer -in g s u gges t ion s b a sed on lon g exp er ien ce -in com p et it ive en v ir on m en t s. In it ia lly, in st it u -t ion s w er e scold ed for n o-t p r op er ly m a r k e-t in g t h em s elves. T h u s, sever a l con fer en ces w er e or ga n ized t o exa m in e h ow in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion ca n b est m a r k et t h eir ser -v ices w it h t h e in t en t of m a in t a in in g t h eir m a r k et sh a r e a n d , p r ob a bly, en h a n cin g t h eir en r olm en t s.
H ow ever, t h e r ea liza t ion t h a t fa cu lt y m em -b er s w er e som ew h a t n e ga t ive or
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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
en r olm en t m a n a gem en t , a con ce p t t h a t , for a ll in t en t s a n d p u r p oses, d es cr ib es t h e sa m e fu n ct ion s of m a r k et in g a s fou n d in t h e cor p o-r a t e woo-r ld . H os sleo-r et a l. (1990), foo-r exa m p le, d efi n ed en r olm en t m a n a gem en t a s :
a n or ga n iza t ion a l con ce p t a n d a sy st em a t ic s et of a ct iv it ies d esign ed t o en a ble ed u ca -t ion a l in s-t i-t u -t ion s -t o exer -t m or e in fl u en ce over t h eir st u d en t en r olm en t s. Or ga n ized by s t r a t e gic p la n n in g a n d su p p or t ed by in st it u -t ion a l r esea r ch , en r olm en -t m a n a gem en -t a ct iv it ies con cer n s t u d en t colle ge ch oice, tr a n sition to college, stu den t a ttr ition a n d r et en t ion , a n d s t u d en t ou t com es (p. 5).
T h e a d op t ion of m a r k et in g or en r olm en t m a n a gem en t s t r a t e gies in h igh er ed u ca t ion h a s a lt er ed t h e dy n a m ics w it h in t h es e in st it u -t ion s. N ew con ce p -t s, s u ch a s r ecr u i-t m en -t , p er s on a l sellin g, a dver t is in g, t a r get in g, se g-m en t a t ion , a n d so on , s t a r t ed t o p er cola t e a r ou n d t h e ca m p u ses. T h e st r u ct u r e of t h e offices r es p on sible for a d m is sion s w er e ch a n ged – u p -gr a d ed in m a n y ca ses t o v ice-p r es id en t level; t it les w er e a ls o ch a n ged t o en r olm en t m a n a ger s in s t ea d of a d m is s ion officer s.
In a d d it ion , in st it u t ion s w er e a dv ised t o a d op t a t ot a l-s er v ice con ce p t . T h is con ce p t im p lies a com p r eh en sive a p p r oa ch t o s t u d en t ser v ices r a n gin g fr om t h e p oin t of in it ia l con t a ct t o a d m iss ion , fr om in st r u ct ion a l-r ela t ed s el-r v ices t o n on -in s t l-r u ct ion a l-l-r ela t ed ser v ices, a n d fr om exp er ien ces on t h e ca m p u s t o a ft er -gr a d u a t ion con t a ct s. F r om t h is s t a ge, st u d en t s w er e n o lon ger t o b e v iew ed a s “st u -d en t s ” bu t r a t h er “cu st om er s”.
Resource attraction strategies – marketing
Va r iou s r es ou r ce a t t r a ct ion st r a t e gies a r e cu r r en t ly in u se in h igh er ed u ca t ion . For exa m p le, m a n y in st it u t ion s h ave a lt er ed t h eir or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r es t o p r ov id e for offices r es p on sible for d evelop m en t a n d fu n d -r a is in g a ct iv it ies. T h ese office-r s em p loy bu sin es s -lik e t a ct ics su ch a s m a r k et r es ea r ch , se gm en t a t ion , a n d t a r get in g t o p r ov id e d esir ed r esu lt s for t h eir in s t it u t ion s.
In a d d it ion , m a n y in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion , in a b id t o a t t r a ct cor p or a t e d ol-la r s, h ave s et u p u n it s t o en ga ge in t h e sa le of in t ellect u a l p r op er t ies. Kn ow led ge cr ea t ion h a s, t h er efor e, b ecom e a n a t t r a ct ive m on ey -m a k in g ven t u r e for so-m e in st it u t ion s. In t er m s of t h e im p a ct on t h e cu lt u r e of h igh er ed u ca t ion , a d m in is t r a t or s a r e m or e lik ely t o en cou r a ge r es ea r ch p r oject s t h a t look a t t r a c-t ive c-t o c-t h e cor p or a c-t e wor ld c-t h a n c-t h os e w h ich offer n o r ea d ily d efi n a ble b en efi t s. Ad m in is -t r a -t or s a r e in clin ed -t o s ea r ch for w ay s -t o fos t er r ela t ion sh ip s w it h cor p or a t e lea d er s w it h t h e sole in t en t of a t t r a ct in g r es ou r ces
fr om t h is sect or. Con s eq u en t ly, a d m in ist r a -t or s a r e in cr ea sin gly a d op -t in g -t h e la n gu a ge a n d t a ct ics of t h e bu sin es s wor ld in or d er t o r ela t e p r ofi t a b ly w it h t h a t en v ir on m en t .
An ot h er r es ou r ce a t t r a ct ion st r a t e gy com m on ly fou n d on ou r ca m p u ses t od ay is gov -er n m en t r ela t ion s. In m a n y in s t it u t ion s in t h e USA, a n office is d esign a t ed a n d ch a r ged w it h t h e r esp on sib ilit y of w a t ch in g gover n m en t d elib er a t ion s w it h t h e a im of id en t ify -in g t h e p r -in cip a l a ct or s a n d a t t em p t -in g t o in fl u en ce t h em . T h e id ea of in fl u en cin g gov -er n m en t t o t h e a dva n t a ge of h igh -er ed u ca t ion m ay sou n d st r a n ge t o som e a n d ot h er s m ay a ct u a lly q u es t ion t h e et h ica l b a sis for su ch a n a ct ion . H ow ever, w h en on e con sid er s t h a t p olit icia n s b a sica lly r es p on d t o p r essu r e gr ou p s a n d t h e ou t r a geou s n u m b er of p r es-su r e gr ou p s exist in g t od ay, t h e n eed for h igh er ed u ca t ion t o en su r e t h a t t h eir con -cer n s a r e n ot lost in t h e m a ze b ecom es obv iou s. T h er efor e, h igh er ed u ca t ion ca n b e p a r -d on e-d for r esp on -d in g t o t h e h igh er or -d er n eed of t h e societ y (d iscover in g k n ow led ge a n d eq u ip p in g u s w it h k n ow led ge a n d sk ills) by get t in g t h eir h a n d s d ir t y in ou r som et im es p ollu t ed p olit ica l p on d s.
T h e id ea of k ee p in g close t o t h e p olit icia n s, b efr ien d in g a n d in fl u en cin g t h em for t h e ca u se of h igh er ed u ca t ion h a s som e r a m ifi ca -t ion s. In s om e s -t a -t es, in s-t i-t u -t ion s a p p r oa ch p olit icia n s in d iv id u a lly, t h er eby cr ea t in g u n n ecessa r y com p et it ion a m on g t h ese in st i-t u i-t ion s. Secon d , i-t o d evelop a n d m a in i-t a in effect ive gover n m en t r ela t ion s in in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion is exp en sive. T h ir d , m a in t a in in g effect ive gover n m en t r ela t ion s w it h ou t a p p ea r in g p a r t isa n is a d a u n t in g t a sk . F in a lly, ch a n ges in p olit ica l offices m ea n t h a t d evelop in g gover n m en t r ela t ion s is a n ever -en d in g t a sk .
In su m m a r y, in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion a r e in cr ea sin gly u t ilizin g a com p r eh en -sive m a r k et in g a p p r oa ch t o a t t r a ct r esou r ces su ch a s st u d en t s, fa cu lt y a n d st a ff, d esir a ble im a ge, d on a t ion s, a n d p olit ica l su p p or t . As exp r ess ed by M ich a el (1991), p u blic colle ges a n d u n iver sit ies fu n d ed solely by on e sou r ce (gover n m en t ) a r e in va r ia bly ca p t ive t o t h e sou r ce; d iver s ifi ed fu n d in g sou r ces a r e t h er e-for e a n ext en sion of in s t it u t ion a l a u t on om y a n d , u lt im a t ely, a ca d em ic fr eed om .
Total quality management
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w id ely k n ow n t od ay a s t ot a l q u a lit y m a n a ge-m en t (TQM ).
Wh ile d iffer en t a u t h or s d efi n e TQM in d iffer en t w ay s, a ll a gr ee t h a t it is a t ech n iq u e of w a s t e r ed u ct ion by focu sin g on con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t of t h e p r ocess of p r od u ct ion w it h t h e a im of a ch iev in g t h e h igh es t q u a lit y p oss ible. T h er efor e, TQM is a ls o k n ow n a s CQI or con t in u ou s q u a lit y im p r ovem en t (Sey m ou r, 1993). Wh ile t h e bu s in ess sect or h a s a lon g exp er ien ce w it h TQM , it s a r r iva l t o h igh er ed u ca t ion is r ecen t (Ma r ch ese, 1993). Sh er r a n d Lozier (1991) ob ser ved t h a t :
TQM is a st y le of m a n a gem en t t h a t h a s wor k ed for sever a l d eca d es over s ea s a n d is r eceiv in g gr ow in g a t t en t ion in t h e Un it ed St a t es. N ow s om e colle ges a n d u n iver sit ies a r e b e gin n in g t o r ecogn ize t h a t TQM va lu es a r e m or e com p a t ible w it h h igh er ed u ca t ion t h a n m a n y exis t in g m a n a gem en t s y st em s (p. 3).
DeCosm o et a l. (1991) s t a t ed t h a t t h e n eed t o con ser ve r es ou r ces, im p r ove effect iven es s, ca p t u r e t h e q u a lit y n ich e a n d in cr ea se p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g n eces si-t a si-t ed si-t h e a d op si-t ion of TQM in in s si-t isi-t u si-t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion . Focu sin g on t h e exp er ien ce of Delaw a r e Cou n t y Com m u n it y Colle ge (DCCC), t h e a u t h or s a ck n ow led ged t h a t : t h e execu t ive st a ff a t DCCC is con v in ced t h a t TQM is wor t h ever y effor t w e h ave m a d e. T h e colle ge is on t h e lea d in g ed ge of a m a n a gem en t r evolu t ion d esign ed t o p r ov id e h igh er q u a lit y t o k ee p t h e Un it ed St a t es com p et it ive. Su cces s in im p lem en t in g TQM w ill a llow DCCC t o con t in u e t o m eet t h e n eed s of it s st a k eh old er s w ell in t o t h e n ext cen t u r y (p p. 22-3).
Sh er r a n d Lozier (1991) exp la in ed t h a t TQM is a b ou t a ch iev in g con t r olled p r ocess es, n ot con t r olled p eop le. To d o t h is, t h ey p os it ed t h a t t h e con t in u ou s p r ocess im p r ovem en t t ech -n iq u e u t ilizes fi ve b a s ic elem e-n t s : h o-n est y (a ck n ow led gin g t h e p r es en ce of a p r oblem ); s h a r ed v is ion (s t a ff u n d er s t a n d in g a n d a cce p -t a n ce of -t h e id ea -t h a -t p r ocess es ca n b e im p r oved ); p a t ien ce (t h er e is n o m a gic w a n d , t h e t ech n iq u e en t a ils st u dy a n d t im e); com -m it -m en t (t h e in volve-m en t a n d s u p p or t of a ll levels of p er son n el); a n d TQM t h eor y (p p. 6-7). Accor d in g t o t h ese a u t h or s, t h er e a r e m a n y p r in cip les of TQM , bu t t h ose of p a r t icu la r in t er es t t o h igh er ed u ca t ion m a n a gem en t a r e m is s ion a n d cu s t om er focu s, s y s t em a t ic a p p r oa ch t o op er a t ion s, v igor ou s d evelop m en t of h u m a n r es ou r ces, lon gt er m t h in k -in g, a n d com m it m en t (p p. 7-9). Sim ila r ly, M a r ch es e (1993) n ot ed t h a t TQM in h igh er ed u ca t ion im p lies focu sin g on cu s t om er s, a d op t in g a con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t p h iloso-p h y, m a n a gin g by fa ct , u sin g b en ch m a r k in g (t h a t is, “s y st em a t ic sea r ch for b es t p r a ct ice”,
p. 12), em p h a sizin g p eop le, a n d a d op t in g a p p r op r ia t e st r u ct u r es (p p. 10-13).
To r eca p it u la t e, TQM a t t em p t s t o focu s on t h e p r ocess t h a t a im s a t im p r ov in g cu st om er sa t isfa ct ion a n d or ga n iza t ion a l efficien cy. Am on g it s goa ls is t o en a ble em p loyees t o d evelop a “Ka izen “ a t t it u d e (DeCos m o et a l., 1991), a n a t t it u d e t h a t , if a d op t ed , is exp ect ed t o t r a n sfor m h igh er ed u ca t ion . Bu t a s Ma r ch -ese (1993) a d m it t ed , w h a t TQM m ea n s t o h igh er ed u ca t ion is yet t o b e fu lly u n d er st ood :
On a lm ost a n y ca m p u s, t h in a s t h e k n ow -led ge m ay yet b e, p eop le a r e a lr ea dy s t ou t ly for t ot a l q u a lit y or d ee p ly s ce p t ica l of it . Wh a t t h e q u ick -t o-ju d ge m is s – w h a t t h e ea r ly, t r iu m p h a lis t w r it in g a b ou t TQM in h igh er ed u ca t ion a ls o m is s es – is t h a t t ot a l q u a lit y is com p lica t ed , im p or t a n t , d ifficu lt t o im p lem en t , a n d fa r fr om fi gu r ed ou t . Con t r a r y t o t h e t oold r iven , s even s t e p wor k -sh op s t h a t con s u lt a n t s a r e bu s ily s ellin g, w e’r e yea r s aw ay fr om k n ow in g w h a t a ca d e-m ic ver sion s of TQM w ill a p p r op r ia t ely look lik e (p. 10).
Strategic planning techniques
T h e 1980s w it n essed a w id esp r ea d a d op t ion of st r a t e gic p la n n in g t ech n iq u es in in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion in N or t h Am er ica . T h e t ech n iq u es a r e h igh ly p r a ised in t h e lit er a -t u r e for h elp in g -t o en su r e su r v iva l a n d gr ow t h of t h ou sa n d s of en t er p r ises in t h e bu sin ess wor ld . F a ced w it h dw in d lin g r esou r ces a n d in cr ea sin g com p et it ion , a n d p er h a p s in a b id t o a ss u r e t h e s ociet y of it s r esp on s iven ess t o t h e ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t , in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion in N or t h Am er ica t u r n ed t o st r a t e gic p la n n in g.
Accor d in g t o Br y son (1988), st r a t e gic p la n -n i-n g m ay b e d efi -n ed a s “a d iscip li-n ed effor t t o p r od u ce fu n d a m en t a l d ecision s a n d a ct ion s t h a t sh a p e a n d gu id e w h a t a n or ga n iza t ion (or ot h er en t it y ) is, w h a t it d oes, a n d w h y it d oes it ” (p. 5). T h e p la n n in g t ech n iq u e p r o-v id es in st it u t ion s w it h t h e op p or t u n it y of id en t ify in g t h eir st a k eh old er s, d evelop in g m ission st a t em en t s, exa m in in g st r en gt h s, w ea k n esses, t h r ea t s, a n d op p or t u n it ies, a n d d evelop in g a p p r op r ia t e st r a t e gies t o a ch ieve sp ecifi c goa ls a n d ob ject ives. Br y son (1988) p oin t ed ou t t h a t :
At it s b est , s t r a t e gic p la n n in g r eq u ir es b r oa d sca le in for m a t ion ga t h er in g, a n exp lo-r a t ion of a lt elo-r n a t ives, a n d a n em p h a s is on t h e fu t u r e im p lica t ion s of p r es en t d ecision s. It ca n fa cilit a t e com m u n ica t ion a n d p a r t ici-p a t ion , a ccom m od a t e d iver gen t in t er es t s a n d va lu es, a n d fos t er or d er ly d ecis ion m a k in g a n d s u ccess fu l im p lem en t a t ion (p. 5).
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t h is s ect or. F ir st , st r a t e gic p la n n in g con vey s a m ess a ge of v u ln er a b ilit y a n d u r gen cy in a w ay t h a t w a s u n fa m ilia r in h igh er ed u ca t ion b efor e. T h e id ea is con veyed t h a t w it h ou t t h is p la n n ob ody ’s job is secu r ed a n d t h a t if t h er e w a s ever a t im e t o en ga ge in t h is p la n n in g, it is n ow. Secon d , t h e a t t em p t t o d evelop a m is -sion st a t em en t for a n in st it u t ion for ces t h e on ce loos ely -cou p led com m u n it ies w it h in t h e in st it u t ion t o a t t em p t t o d evelop com m on v is ion , com m on a p p r oa ch , a n d com m on la n -gu a ge. In it s p u r est sen s e, a u n iver s it y is a n a s sem bla ge of com m u n it ies w it h d iffer en t id eologies, a gen d a , a n d a ca d em ic t r a d it ion s h eld t oget h er by a com m on in s t it u t ion a l logo a n d n a m e. T h e sea r ch for t r u t h , w h ich r eq u ir es d iffer en t cr ea t ive a p p r oa ch es, n eces-sit a t es t h e oct op u s-lik e n a t u r e of in s t it u t ion a l st r u ct u r e. H ow ever, t h e a p p lica t ion of s t r a t e-gic p la n n in g is h av in g som e im p a ct on t h e t r a d it ion a l cu lt u r e of t h ese in st it u t ion s. T h ir d , t h e id ea of id en t ify in g st a k eh old er s a n d r es p on d in g t o t h eir n eed s a s a m ea n s of en s u r in g r es ou r ce a t t r a ct ion h a s som e effect s on t h e t r a d it ion a l cu lt u r e of t h e u n iver s it y sect or.
In s u m m a r y, t h e goa ls of s t r a t e gic p la n n in g a r e t o en a ble h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s t o in cr ea s e t h eir p la n n in g ca p a cit y, b e m or e efficien t in t h eir r esou r ce d e p loy m en t , a n d b ecom e m or e p r oa ct ive in a n t icip a t in g ch a n ges a n d d evelop in g t h e ca p a cit y t o r esp on d a p p r op r ia t ely.
Other academic accountability strategies
Accou n t a b ilit y, sim p ly p u t , m ea n s “a ccou n t -in g” for t h e “a b ilit y ” p r om is ed a n d exp ect ed . H igh er ed u ca t ion r eceives r es ou r ces fr om societ y b eca u s e of it s “a b ilit y ” t o p r ov id e cer t a in s er v ices. Societ y, t h er efor e, d em a n d s t h a t in s t it u t ion s d em on s t r a t e h ow r es ou r ces ob t a in ed a r e b ein g u sed t o a ccom p lis h t h eir t a s k s; h en ce, a ccou n t a b ilit y m ea n s t o b e a n sw er a ble for r es p on sib ilit y a s sign ed . Gen -er a lly, a ccou n t a b ilit y a d d r es s es t wo is su es : on e is t h e ext en t t o w h ich r es ou r ces a r e b ein g u s ed for t h eir in t en d ed p u r p ose a n d t h e s ec-on d is t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h es e r es ou r ces a r e b ein g u s ed efficien t ly.
For s ever a l r ea son s, h igh er ed u ca t ion h a s h a d a d a u n t in g p r oblem in m eet in g t h ese a ccou n t a b ilit y r eq u ir em en t s. F ir s t , fa cu lt y op er a t in g u n d er t h e e p ist em ologica l p a r a -d igm a r e s u s p iciou s of a n y a ccou n t a b ilit y d em a n d b eca u se a t t em p t s t o fu lfi l t h e d em a n d m ay ob fu s ca t e or t a in t t h eir ob ject ive sea r ch for t r u t h . Secon d , t h e ou t com es of h igh er ed u ca t ion s er v ices d o n ot len d t h em s elves t o ea sy a n d q u ick a ccou n t in g. T h ir d , fa cu lt y m em b er s p er for m d iver s e s er v ices ; on e fa c-u lt y m ay excel in on e a r ea bc-u t b e d efi cien t in a n ot h er. Det er m in in g t h e r ela t ive wor t h of
t h ese d iver se ser v ices is seen a s a r b it r a r y a n d s u b ject ive. Fou r t h , a n d p er h a p s m ost im p or t a n t , a ccou n t a b ilit y cr it er ia a cce p t a ble or d esir a ble t o t h ose ou t s id e a ca d em ia a r e gen er a lly u n d esir a ble t o t h ose w it h in .
Ca u gh t b et w een t h e p r essu r e t o d em on -st r a t e -st ew a r d sh ip a n d t h e n eed t o p r eser ve in st it u t ion a l a u t on om y a n d a ca d em ic fr ee-d om , a ee-d m in is t r a t or s a n ee-d fa cu lt y in h igh er ed u ca t ion h ave com e u p w it h sever a l t ech -n iq u es i-n a -n a t t em p t t o d em o-n st r a t e a ca d em ic a ccou n t a b ilit y. Ch ief a em on g t h ese t ech n iq u es is p r ogr a m m e a ccr ed it a t ion . By su b -m it t in g a p r ogr a -m -m e t o t h e st a n d a r d s sp eci-fi ed by a n in d e p en d en t a ccr ed it in g a gen cy, in st it u t ion s h op e t o a ssu r e t h e p u blic of t h e q u a lit y of t h eir offer in gs. Bu t , a s Br u b a ch er (1990) ob ser ved , “som e st a t es d o n ot seem t o t r u s t volu n t a r y a ccr ed it in g a gen cies, t h r ou gh w h ich t h e a ca d em ic est a blish m en t a ccr ed it s it self. ‘Wh a t con fi d en ce ca n w e h ave in su ch self-s er v in g a ccr ed it a t ion ?’, t h ey a sk ” (p. 31).
An ot h er p r ocess of d em on s t r a t in g a ccou n t -a b ilit y com m on t o in st it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion in N or t h Am er ica is self-st u dy. Som et im es a s p a r t of a n a ccr ed it a t ion exer cise, ot h er t im es a s p a r t of a st r a t e gy t o con -v in ce t h e u n ver sit y a n d go-ver n m en t a u t h or i-t ies of i-t h e r igou r, wor i-t h , a n d a i-t i-t r a ci-t iven ess of a p r ogr a m m e, p r ogr a m m e fa cu lt y volu n t a r ily con d u ct a self-st u dy of t h eir p r ogr a m m es. Som et im es a n ext er n a l exp er t is in v it ed t o a u d it t h e p r ogr a m m e, w h ile a t ot h er t im es t h e fa cu lt y m em b er s con cer n ed com p ile st a -t is-t ics a n d p r e p a r e a r e p or -t on -t h e
p r ogr a m m e. N u m er ou s t y p es of t h ese st u d ies exist on ca m p u ses a cr oss t h e n a t ion , bu t t h e q u est ion s a s t o t h e self-s er v in g n a t u r e of t h e exer cise a n d a s t o w h o is r ea d in g t h ese r e p or t s r em a in u n a n sw er ed .
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
h u n d r ed s of jou r n a ls, look in g for r efer en ces a n d foot n ot es cit ed in ea ch wor k . N eed les s t o s ay, jou r n a ls n ot w it h in t h e collect ion of ISI a r e n ot in clu d ed in t h e exer cis e a n d , m or e im p or t a n t ly, b ook s a n d ot h er wor k s a r e n ot in clu d ed in t h e exer cise. Secon d , a u t h or s va r y in t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h ey cit e ot h er wor k s in s u p p or t of t h eir w r it in gs. Als o, s om e a u t h or s a r e con t en t ed w it h cit in g on e a u t h or in s u p p or t of t h eir wor k w h ile ot h er s cit e s ever a l wor k s. T h ir d , m a n y of u s a r e fa m ilia r w it h excellen t wor k s bu r ied a n d for got t en (for a lon g t im e) on ly t o b e r es u r r ect ed a n d t o b ecom e t h e cor n er st on e of n ew cu t t in g-ed ge d evelop m en t s. F in a lly, som e a u t h or s su c-cu m b t o t h e t em p t a t ion of over -cit in g t h eir p er s on a l wor k s, w h ile ot h er s r es is t t h is t em p -t a -t ion by r ed u cin g -t h is p r a c-t ice -t o -t h e m in i-m u i-m .
In s u m m a r y, a ca d em icia n s a p p ea r t o b e r elen t les s in t h eir sea r ch for w ay s t o d em on s t r a t e a ccou n t a b ilit y t o s ociet y. Wh ile ext er -n a lly im p os ed cr it er ia m ay p r ove i-n effect ive, m et h od s a d op t ed by a ca d em icia n s t h em -s elve-s m ay offer -som e p r om i-s e. Ir r e-s p ect ive of t h e s ou r ce of cr it er ia , cu r r en t m et h od s of a s cer t a in in g a ccou n t a b ilit y in h igh er ed u ca -t ion on ly con vey p a r -t of -t h e s -t or y a n d s om e d o con vey a w r on g st or y com p let ely.
Cost-control strategies
In r es p on s e t o t h e p r es s u r e for r es ou r ce u t i-liza t ion a ccou n t a b ilit y (p r od u ct ion
efficien cy ), in st it u t ion s h ave exa m in ed a n d a d op t ed sever a l cost -con t r ol s t r a t e gies. T h e fi r s t w ave of fi n a n cia l con st r a in t s w a s m et w it h m a n d a t or y a cr oss-t h e-b oa r d cu t s in in s t it u t ion s of h igh er ed u ca t ion . Wit h t h e a d op t ion of st r a t e gic p la n n in g, w h ich for ces in s t it u t ion s t o exa m in e t h eir st r en gt h s a n d w ea k n es ses in or d er t o ca r ve ou t t h eir n ich es, a cr os s -t h e-b oa r d cu t s w er e a b a n d on ed or r ed u ced for a m or e s elect ive fu n d in g p r a ct ice. Sy st em s w er e r eor ga n ized a n d com p u t er ized . For exa m p le, t ech n ology h elp ed in in t e gr a t -in g m a n y lib r a r ies, t h u s r ed u c-in g t h e lib r a r y cos t s. TQM w a s im p lem en t ed in m a n y in st i-t u i-t ion s w ii-t h i-t h e a im of s i-t u dy in g p r ocess es a n d elim in a t in g w a s t e a n d d u p lica t ion of effor t . M a n d a t or y r et ir em en t p la n s w er e in s t it u t ed in m a n y colle ges a n d u n iver s it ies w it h t h e a im of r et ir in g old er a n d m or e exp en s ive fa cu lt y m em b er s. In a d d it ion , m a n y in s t it u t ion s a d op t ed t h e st r a t e gy of con t r a ct in g ou t s er v ices r a t h er t h a n p r ov id -in g t h es e ser v ices d ir ect ly. Also, m a n y -in st i-t u i-t ion s ca m e i-t ogei-t h er i-t o p r ov id e a “ca p i-t ive in s u r a n ce” ser v ice, t h a t is, a s elf-in su r a n ce p olicy for p a r t icip a t in g in s t it u t ion s, t h u s s av in g t h ou sa n d s of d olla r s (NACUBO, 1992). In d eed , in s t it u t ion s h ave n ot r elen t ed in t h eir s ea r ch for cr ea t ive cos t -con t a in m en t a n d
cost -cu r t a ilm en t st r a t e gies. H ow ever, t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich t h e gen er a l p u blic is con -v in ced t h a t in st it u t ion s a r e cu r r en t ly d oin g m or e w it h less is d eb a t a ble.
Implications
T h e fi r st im p lica t ion of t h e a d op t ion of con -st r a in t s-r ed u ct ion -st r a t e gies d iscu ssed a b ove is t h e in cr ea s e in t h e n u m b er of p r ofession a l a d m in ist r a t or s on ou r ca m p u s es. Ch a n ges in t h e en v ir on m en t of h igh er ed u ca t ion h ave n eces sit a t ed a d m in ist r a t or s w h o h ave sk ills in p r a ct ica l m a n a gem en t . Ma n y of t h ese a d m in ist r a t or s h ave bu sin es s b a ck gr ou n d s w it h a “con su m er ist p h ilosop h y of life”. T h eir p r esen ce h a s u n d ou b t ed ly en h a n ced t h e sh ift t ow a r d s con s u m er ism (d iscu ssed fu r t h er b elow ) in h igh er ed u ca t ion .
Consumerism-“professorialism” continuum
H igh er ed u ca t ion ser v ices ca n b e p r ov id ed u n d er t wo op p osin g p h ilosop h ies. On on e ext r em e is “con su m er is m ” a n d on t h e ot h er is “p r ofessor ia lism ”. Con s u m er ism is a n id eology of t h e bu sin ess wor ld – a n id eology t h a t d efi n es t h e con s u m er a s t h e “k in g”. Un d er t h is p h ilosop h y, t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of a n eed , t h e con ce p t u a liza t ion of a p r od u ct or a ser v ice in r esp on se t o t h e n eed , t h e d esign a n d m a r k et in g of t h e p r od u ct or ser v ice a r e d ict a t ed by in for m a t ion ob t a in ed fr om t h e con su m er s. In d eed , t h e s u r v iva l of a bu sin ess or ga n iza t ion d e p en d s solely on t h e con t in u -in g s a t is fa ct ion of it s cu st om er s. Wh er e t h e cu s t om er s vot e a ga in st t h e p r od u ct or ser v ice of a n or ga n iza t ion , t h e or ga n iza t ion r u n s a t a loss a n d w h en t h ey vot e in favou r of t h e p r od u ct or ser v ice, t h e p ossib ilit y of p r ofi t r ea liza t ion is en su r ed .
Wh a t is a r b it r a r ily t er m ed “p r ofessor ia l-is m ” h er e con n ot es a n id eology of t h e a ca d em ic wor ld – a n id eology t h a t d efi n es t h e a ca d -em icia n s a s t h e “k in g”. Un d er t h is p h iloso-p h y, t h e fa cu lt y or iloso-p r ofessor s d et er m in e w h a t t o offer, h ow t o offer, a n d w h en t o offer. T h e p r ofessor s d ecid e t h e k in d of ser v ices t o p r o-v id e a n d w h a t con st it u t es q u a lit y s er o-v ice. P r ofes sor ia lism d escr ib es t h e id eology of h igh er ed u ca t ion op er a t in g u n d er w h a t Br u b a ch er (1990) ca lled e p ist em ologica l con -sid er a t ion .
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
T h er efor e, in s t it u t ion s h ave b een a dv ised t o b ecom e m or e s t u d en t -cen t r ed or t o en su r e t h a t t h eir a d m in ist r a t or s a d op t a con su m er -or ien t ed p h ilosop h y. T h e b a s es f-or t h is p h ilos-op h y a r e s im p le a n d clea r : s t u d en t s w h o a r e p oor ly s er ved m ay t r a n s fer t o ot h er in st it u -t ion s; su ch s -t u d en -t s m ay n o-t b ecom e p os i-t ive volu n t a r y sa les p er son s for t h e in s t it u t ion ; t h ey a r e n ot lik ely t o b e a m on g t h os e a lu m n i w h o r em em b er t h e in s t it u t ion gen er ou sly, a n d t h ey m ay h old a p olit ica l office in fu t u r e a n d m ay n ot r em em b er t h e in s t it u t ion favou r a bly. Given a ll t h ese d is a dva n t a ges, t h er efor e, a con s u m er is t p h ilosop h y for h igh er ed u ca t ion is n ot on ly a r ecom m en d ed st r a t e gy bu t s eem s t o b e a n a cce p t a ble s t r a t -e gy for p r ogr -ess iv-e a n d p r oa ct iv-e h igh -er ed u ca t ion lea d er s in t h e t w en t y -fi r s t cen t u r y.
Bu t a s M ay n a r d (1982) ob s er ved , s t u d en t s a r e n ot in a p osit ion t o b e t h e k in g in t h e a ca d em ic in d u st r y for s ever a l r ea son s. F ir s t , t h e m a jor it y of s t u d en t s ca n n ot d ecid e w h a t sp ecifi c t r a in in g is n eed ed for t h eir ch osen p r ofes sion . Secon d , t h ey a r e h a r d ly in a p os it ion t o d ecid e w h a t cu r r icu lu m t h e t r a in -in g s h ou ld cover. T h ir d , even if s t u d en t s ca n d et er m in e t h e cu r r icu lu m cover a ge, t h ey a r e seld om in a p osit ion t o d et er m in e w h a t com -p et en ces, q u a lit y, or s t a n d a r d s n eed t o b e a ch ieved . In s h or t , s t u d en t s d o n ot s t a n d in t h e s a m e p osit ion a s a con su m er of p izza . Ma n y of u s w h o bu y p izza d o s o t o sa t is fy a n im m ed ia t e n eed , bu t t h e n eed b ein g fu lfi lled by h igh er ed u ca t ion is lon g-t er m a n d t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h is n eed h a s or h a s n ot b een m et w ill n ot b e k n ow n u n t il m a n y yea r s la t er.
T h er efor e, h igh er ed u ca t ion op er a t es u n d er a ver y im p er fect m a r k et , a m a r k et w h er e con s u m er s la ck im p or t a n t k n ow led ge of t h e p r eva ilin g m a r k et con d it ion s. St u d en t s, even if t h ey h ave t h e r esou r ces, gen er a lly w ill n ot h op fr om on e in s t it u t ion t o a n ot h er ever y t im e t h ey a r e d iss a t isfi ed w it h s er v ice p r o-v id ed . In h igh er ed u ca t ion , a n in st it u t ion ’s a b ilit y t o en t er in t o a n d exit fr om t h e m a r k et is h igh ly cir cu m scr ib ed . T h er efor e, t h e s u c-ces s of t h e a p p lica t ion of t h e con s u m er ist p h ilos op h y t o h igh er ed u ca t ion is ver y lim -it ed . Yet , a s s een in F igu r e 2, t h e m a jor -it y of bu sin es s -r ela t ed st r a t e gies a r e in t en d ed t o ext en d t h is p h ilos op h y in h igh er ed u ca t ion .
On t h e ot h er h a n d , fa cu lt y m em b er s a r e, by t r a in in g, in a b et t er p os it ion t o d ecid e t h e goa ls of h igh er ed u ca t ion a n d t h e m ea n s t o a ch ieve t h ese goa ls. T h e fa cu lt y r ole of k n ow l-ed ge t r a n s m iss ion is p r ecl-ed l-ed by t h eir r ole of k n ow led ge cr ea t ion . T h e r ole of k n ow led ge cr ea t ion exp oses fa cu lt y m em b er s t o t h e n a t u r e of k n ow led ge w it h in t h eir sp ecia liza -t ion s a n d , -t h er efor e, -t h ey a r e in -t h e b es -t p os i-t ion i-t o d ecid e h ow s u ch k n ow led ge s h ou ld b e or ga n ized a n d t r a n s m it t ed . Con seq u en t ly,
t h ey t y p ica lly m a k e d ecision s on en t r y r eq u ir em en t s (a d m iss ion s), p r ogr a m m e con -t en -t , cu r r icu lu m cover a ge, a n d exi-t r eq u ir e-m en t s (exa e-m in a t ion s). Alt h ou gh , fa cu lt y m em b er s m ay k ee p t h e n eed s of t h eir st u -d en t s in m in -d w h ile m a k in g t h ese -d ecision s, t h ey, t h e fa cu lt y, a r e p r im a r ily gover n ed by t h eir p er ce p t ion of w h a t t h e p r ofess ion or p r ofes sion a ls r ecom m en d or r eq u ir e (Bir n -b a u m , 1988). Aft er a ll, h igh er ed u ca t ion is n ot a n en t er t a in m en t in d u st r y w h er e ser v ices a r e r en d er ed for t h e con ven ien ce, a m u se-m en t , a n d en joy se-m en t of t h e st u d en t s. Ra t h er, it is a “k n ow led ge in d u st r y ” w it h a m ission t o ed u ca t e t h e “m in d s” a n d t r a in t h e “h a n d s” u n d er con d it ion s t h a t m ay b e som et im es less t h a n com for t a ble or a cce p t a ble t o t h e st u -d en t s.
N ever t h eles s, p a r t ly b eca u se of t h e con cer n a b ou t t h e p os sib ilit y of “d ea dwood ” a m on g t h e fa cu lt y a n d p a r t ly b eca u se of t h e con cer n a b ou t t h e n eed for fa cu lt y a ccou n t a b ilit y, sever a l a t t em p t s h ave b een m a d e t o ext en d t h e con su m er ist p h ilosop h y in h igh er ed u ca -t ion . For exa m p le, -t en u r e h a s b een u n d er a t t a ck in m a n y st a t es, ext er n a l p r ogr a m m e r ev iew s h ave b een m a n d a t ed in som e st a t es, a n d t h er e is a gr ow in g r elia n ce on st u d en t eva lu a t ion in d et er m in in g fa cu lt y t ea ch in g q u a lit y. T h er efor e, it is va lid t o say t h a t t h e Am er ica n h igh er ed u ca t ion sy st em is cu r -r en t ly sh ift in g t ow a -r d s con su m e-r ism a n d aw ay fr om p r ofessor ia lism ; sh ift in g t ow a r d s t h e m a r k et a n d aw ay fr om t h e t r a d it ion a l ivor y t ow er.
Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
Figure 2
The philo s o phic al unde rpinning o f ne w s trate gie s in us e in highe r e duc atio n
Figure 3
