BAHASA INGGRIS HUKUM
Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 19 Tahun 2002 Tentang Hak Cipta Lingkup Hak Cipta
Pasal 2
1. Hak Cipta merupakan hak eksklusif bagi Pencipta atau Pemegang Hak Cipta untuk mengumumkan atau memperbanyak Ciptaannya, yang timbul secara otomatis setelah suatu ciptaan dilahirkan tanpa mengurangi pembatasan menurut peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku.
Ketentuan Pidana Pasal 72
1. Barang siapa dengan sengaja melanggar dan tanpa hak melakukan perbuatan sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 2 Ayat (1) atau Pasal 49 Ayat (1) dan Ayat (2) dipidana dengan penjara masing-masing paling singkat 1 (satu) bulan dan/atau denda paling sedikit Rp 1.000.000,00 (satu juta rupiah), atau pidana penjara paling lama 7 (tujuh) tahun dan/atau denda paling banyak Rp 5.000.000.000,00 (lima miliar rupiah).
UDAYANA UNIVERSITY PRESS 2013
Dr. Ni Ketut Supasti Dharmawan, SH, MHum, LLM
BAHASA INGGRIS HUKUM
Hak Cipta pada Penulis. Hak Cipta Dilindungi Undang-Undang :
Dilarang mengutip atau memperbanyak sebagian atau seluruh isi buku ini tanpa izin tertulis dari penerbit.
Penulis:
Dr. Ni Ketut Supasti Dharmawan, SH, MHum, LLM
Penyunting: Jiwa Atmaja
Cover & Ilustrasi: Repro
Lay Out: I Putu Mertadana
Diterbitkan oleh: Udayana University Press Kampus Universitas Udayana Denpasar, Jl. P.B. Sudirman, Denpasar - Bali Telp. (0361) 9112762
K
ami menyambut gembira dengan diterbitkannya karyatulis ini yang berjudulBAHASA INGGRIS HUKUM
-Legal English & TOEFL-Like Approach (Cetakan Ketiga) dari Sdri.
Dr. Ni Ketut Supasti Dharmawan,SH.,M.Hum.,LLM. pengajar
Mata Kuliah Bahasa Inggris Hukum pada Fakultas Hukum
Universitas Udayana.
Bahasa Inggris merupakan suatu kebutuhan dalam era gobal, terlebih bagi semua kalangan yang menimba ilmu di perguruan tinggi. TOEFL (sebagai indikator kemahiran penguasaan bahasa inggris) merupakan salah satu persyaratan bagi mahasiswa pada semua strata S1-S2 & S3. Sehubungan dengan hal tersebut, maka keberadaan buku ini menjadi sangat berarti untuk d adikan
rujukan dalam memahami dan meningkatkan perolehanTOEFL
Skor serta sekaligus memahamiLegal Term.
Semoga kehadiran buku ini dapat menambah bahan bacaan dan meningkatkan kemampuan memahami buku-buku hukum
(text) berbahasa Inggris, serta bermanfaat meningkatkanTOEFL
Skor.
Denpasar, 1 September 2012.
Dekan FH UNUD
Prof. Dr. I Gusti Ngurah Wairocana,SH.MH. NIP.: 195304011980031004
SAMBUTAN
Legal English atau dalam Mata Kuliah di Fakultas Hukum lebih dikenal dengan nama Bahasa Inggris Hukum memiliki kekhasan tersendiri jika dibandingkan dengan General English. Legal English adalah suatu bentuk ataustyle dari Bahasa Inggris yang secara khusus digunakan oleh para ahli hukum dan para professional hukum (para praktisi) dalam lapangan pekerjaan mereka. Kekhasanstyle dariLegal English, dapat dikenali melalui tulisan-tulisan tentang hukum baik yang tertulis dalamText Book, Literature, Law Journal, Statutes, Treaties, Conventions, maupun
Contract.
Berdasarkan sejarah perkembangannya, kekhasan dari Legal English bersumber dari pengaruh penggunaan bahasa Inggris pada Hukum Perancis dan dari serapan Bahasa Latin. Beberapa istilah dalamLegal English yang jika dibandingkan denganGeneral English nampak tidak lazim diantaranya: inter alia, de facto, ne, bill, the Act, contempt of court, enter into contract, hereof, the parties hereto, whereas,dan yang lainnya. Bagaimana kita bisa mengetahui dan mengenali bahasa Inggris Hukum? Semakin banyak dan sering membaca tulisan-tulisan tentang berbagai bidang hukum baik tulisan yang aspeknya hukum perdata, bisnis, pidana, tata negara, administrasi negara, maupun hukum internasional, maka akan semakin mudah mengenali, mengetahui dan mengerti
legal term yang ada dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut. Bagi para ahli hukum (akademisi hukum dan para praktisi hukum),Legal English merupakan suatu kebutuhan yang sangat penting untuk mendukung pekerjaan mereka, karena dengan dapat mengerti maksud dari frase-frase dalam sebuah tulisan, tentunya akan
dengan mudah dapat menangkap isi (contents ) dari sebuah bacaan.
Buku-buku tentang Legal English mungkin sudah mulai banyak ditulis, begitu juga buku-buku tentangGeneral English dan
TOEFL. Namun dalam buku ini, kekhasannya adalah penulisan tentang Legal English dengan memasukkan istilah-istilah Bahasa Inggris Hukum itu ke dalam bentuk model soal-soal yang biasa diujikan pada TOEFL terutama hanya pada bagian Structure
buku ini diharapkan akan dapat membawa nuansa baru dalam
meningkatkan kemampuan di bidang Legal English yang
sekaligus untuk memahami dan mengenali model-model soal TOEFL sedini mungkin. Pendekatan model TOEFL-like sengaja penulis gunakan, karena untuk segala lini baik dari memasuki Perguruan Tinggi, mulai pada strata: S1 hingga S3, begitu juga ketika akan memasuki lapangan pekerjaan, TOEFL senantiasa dipersyaratkan. Karenanya melalui buku sederhana ini diharapkan dapat membantu para mahasiswa hukum, akademisi hukum maupun professional hukum, mengerti Legal English
sekaligusTOEFL.
Berbagai materi mengenai bidang-bidang hukum yang penulisannya legal term disajikan dengan pendekan TOEFL (
paper based) yaitu berisikanReading Comprehension Section , diramu dengan penulisan essay dengan legal term , serta Structure Section. Selain itu pada Part III juga dilampirkan contohTreaty, Convention, dan Act, sehingga melalui legal dokumen tersebut , penggunaan dan kekhasan legal English
dapat dimengerti secara lebih mendalam sehingga dapat lebih memperkaya wawasan.
Semoga buku sederhana ini dapat berguna, terutama bagi mahasiswa Fakultas Hukum, para penstudi hukum dan orang-orang yang menekuni pekerjaan di bidang hukum.
Denpasar, 27 Agustus 2012
SAMBUTAN DEKAN FAKULTAS HUKUM
UNIVERSITAS UDAYANA ... v
KATA PENGANTAR ... vii
PART I
READING COMPREHENSION SECTION
1. Reading Comprehension Section 1 :
What is Legal English ... 3 2. Tentang Reading Comprehension 1 ... 7 3. Reading Comprehension 2 : Two Major legal
Systems in the World ... 13 4. Tentang Reading Comprehension 2 ... 18 5. Reading Comprehension 3 : The International Law
and its Sources ... 21 6. Tentang Reading Comprehension 3 ... 28 7. Reading Comprehension 4 : The Human Right
Abuses and MNC s Wrongful Conduct ... 32 8. Tentang Reading Comprehension 4 ... 36 9. Reading Comprehension 5 : International
Dispute under the WTO ... 39 10. Reading Comprehension 6 : The Uniform
Interpretation Of Non-Conformity Goods And Breach Of Contract On CISG Case Law ... 48 11. Terminology and Linguistic Peculiarities ... 65
Part II
STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
... 71
... 77
... 79
... 83
5. Paper & Answer Key ... 85
Part III LEGAL DOCUMENTS 1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights ... 93
2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ... 102
3. Marrakesh Agreement Establishing The World Trade Organization ... 129
4. Law Of The Republic Of Indonesia Number 19 Year 2002 Regarding Copyright ... 148
5. Undang-Undang No. 19 Tahun 2002 Tentang Hak Cipta ... 183
PART I
READING
READING COMPREHENSION SECTION 1
WHAT IS LEGAL ENGLISH
L
egal English is the style of English used by lawyers and other legal professionals in their work.1 We can easilyrecognize the style of it when we read legal writing and legal
when they write legal topics in Law Journals or Law Text Book.
as Statutes, Laws or Acts of parliament, Treaties, Conventions, Contracts, Briefs, Views, Recommendations and other legal correspondences.
The style of legal English is slightly di erent from general English. It contains a number of unusual features, especially in its terminology and linguistic structure. The sources of legal English that their roots roots are from French Law and Latin also contribute why this English is sometimes di cult to be understood and very di erent from ordinary English. As an example, the writing
peculiar structure, functional is used insu ciently, and foreign phrases are sometimes used instead of English phrases (e.g.inter alia instead ofamong others). Sometimes unusual set phrases are
null and void.2
1 Legal English, h, the free encyclopedia,
page 1, accessed 11/17/2009.
As a set of phrase,Null and void,actually both words have the same meaning: of no legal e ect. When an agreement, for a variety of reasons, is declared null and void, it means it is not binding or non enforceable by either party.3 Besides unusual
legal terms of art . Legal terms of art are technical words and phrases that have precise and xed legal meanings and which cannot usually be replaced by other words, for instance: share,
royalty and patent.4 As xed legal meanings patent for instance,
in Intellectual Property Right dimensions based on Article 27 TRIPS Agreement, patents shall be available for any inventions, whether products or processes, in all elds of technology, provided that they are new, involve an inventive step and are capable of industrial application.5 In national scope, for instance
in Indonesia, the de nition of patent can be found in Article 1 the Act No.14 Year 2001 Concerning Patent. Therefore, patent as an example of legal English only ts for invention in elds of technology. If people have creative works in elds of art and literary work, we can not say that they havepatentbutcopyright.
3 Peter Alderson, 1995,Legal Dictionary For Australians, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company Australia Pty Limited, Australia, page 103.
4 Rupert Haigh, Opcit, page 8.
Question and Answers using TOEFL-like model test
Question 1-10
1. What does this passage mainly discuss? (A) The General English
(B) The Legal English
(D) The sources of legal English
2. What is the purpose of this passage? (A) To inform
(B) To persuade (C) To criticize (D) To apologize
3. The wordit in line 3 paragraph 1 refers to (A) Legal Writing
(C) Legal Research (D) Legal English
4. The style of legal English commonly used by (A) Lawyers and economic professionals (B) Lawyers and other legal professionals
(C) Lawyers and other mathematic professionals (D) Lawyers and other designer professionals
Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage by choosing the one best answer (A), (B), (C), or (D)
5. The wordviews in line 9 paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
(A) Recommendations (B) Decisions
(C) Judgments (D) Natures
6. The style of legal English is slightly di erent from general English. It contains a number of
(A) usual features (B) unusual features (C) ordinary features (D) extra ordinary features.
7. The sources of legal English are (A) the UK Law and Latin (B) the French Law and Latin (C) the American Law and Latin (D) the European Law and Latin
8. The meaning of phrasesNull and voidis (A) has legal e ect
(B) has no legal e ect (C) enforceable
(D) binding
9. Legal terms of art are technical words and phrases that have precise and xed legal meanings and which cannot usually be replaced by other words. An example of legal terms of art is
10. Patent as an example of legal terms of art only ts for (A) Invention in elds of technology.
(B) Art and Literary works (C) Design graphics
(D) Trade Mark and Brand.
TENTANG READING COMPREHENSION 1
Reading Comprehensionadalah salah satu bentuk Model Tests dalam TOEFL TEST. Umumnya dalam section ini, para peserta ujian dihadapkan pada satu bacaan singkat (reading) dengan berbagai topik. Sehubungan dengan proses pembelajaran dan pengenalan Bahasa Inggris Hukum denganTOEFL-like approach, maka untuk Reading Section , topik-topik yang berkaitan dengan bidang hukum menjadi relevan untuk didiskusikan. Mengenal
dan memahami legal term melalui pendekatan TOEFL-like
menjadi suatu alternatif pembelajaran yang holistik. Apakah Bahasa Inggris Hukum sama dengan Bahasa Inggris Umum? Ataukah jenis bahasa yang satu ini memilikistyle atau gaya bahasa yang berbeda dengan bahasa Inggris pada umumnya?
Bahasa Inggris Hukum seringkali memiliki style yang berbeda dengan bahasa Inggris pada umumnya(General English), bahkan juga oleh kalangan pembaca yang bukan keahlian dan pekerjaannya di bidang hukum ( legal expertises), seringkali jenis bahasa yang satu ini dianggap sulit untuk dipelajari. Perbedaan dan kekhasan yang ada padaLegal English bersumber dan dipengaruhi oleh bahasa yang digunakan dalam Hukum Perancis dan Bahasa Latin. Legal Englishpada awalnya digunakan oleh para ahli hukum di negara-negaraEnglish-speaking countries
yang sistem hukumnya tunduk pada tradisiCommon Law System, seperti di Amerika, Inggris, Kanada, Australia dan New Zealand. Memang pada awalnya Bahasa Inggis yang digunakan adalah Bahasa Inggris untuk orang-orang Inggris pada umumnya, namun sejak invansi Suku Bangsa Normandy di Inggris tahun 1066, disadari bahwa English (General English) adalah bahasa untuk orang-orang kebanyakan di Inggris, sedangkan the Anglo-Norman French, yaitu yang bersumber dari Prancis (French) dan Latin dipertimbangkan sebagai bahasa resmi untuk pembelajaran terutama bahasa-bahasa resmi untuk pemerintahan dan hukum. Sehubungan dengan hal tersebutlah mengapa Bahasa Inggris Hukum (Legal English) berbeda dengan Bahasa Inggris pada umumnya dan banyak terminologi-terminologi yang berasal dari Hukum Perancis dan Latin d umpai dalam Bahasa Inggris Hukum.6
Mengingat Bahasa Inggris Hukum dalam beberapa hal memiliki ciri khas tersendiri yang dipengaruhi oleh bahasa dalam Hukum Perancis dan Latin, maka untuk dapat mengetahui pengertian yang dimaksud oleh frase-frase dalam
Legal English, salah satu alternatifnya adalah dengan membaca tulisan-tulisan tentang topik hukum baik dalam literatur hukum maupun dokumen-dokumen hukum. Semakin sering membaca
6 Barbara J. Beveridge,Legal English-How It Developed and Why It Is Not Appropriate for International Commercial Contracts,
dan mempelajari topik-topik hukum dalam literatur, jurnal dan dokumen-dokumen hukum, maka semakin mudah mengerti tentang apa yang dimaksud oleh phrase-phrase atau legal term
tersebut.
Null and void yaitu suatu legal term yang sesungguhnya baik kata Null maupun Void sama-sama berarti tidak mempunyai akibat hukum atau tidak mengikat , namun dalam penggunaannya phrase Null and Void selalu digunakan berbarengan , sehingga jika dibandingkan dengan Bahasa Inggris pada umumnya, keberadaanphrase Null and Void terlihat janggal atau tidak umum (unusual). Itulah Bahasa Inggris Hukum yang dipengaruhi oleh Bahasa Prancis dan Bahasa Latin, sehingga mengakibatkan kadangkala agak sulit untuk difahami. Phrase Null and Void umumnya digunakan dalam bidang hukum perjanjian.
Syarat sahnya suatu perjanjian di Indonesia diatur dalam Pasal 1320 KUHPerdata. Menurut Pasal tersebut, perjanjian menjadi sah jika memenuhi 4 syarat :
1. Sepakat mereka yang mengikatkan dirinya 2. kecakapan untuk membuat suatu perikatan 3. Suatu hal tertentu
4. Suatu sebab yang halal.
Syarat 1 dan 2 merupakan syarat subyektif, jika salah satu dari syarat tersebut tidak dipenuhi maka perjanjian dapat dibatalkan (voidable). Sementara itu, syarat 3 dan 4 adalah syarat-syarat obyektif, jika salah satu dari syarat-syarat tersebut tidak dipenuhi maka perjanjian menjadi batal demi hukum atau disebut juga
void (void ab initio).7 Dalam suatu perjanjian, jika karena sesuatu
alasan perjanjian tersebut dinyatakan null and void, itu berarti perjanjian tersebut tidak mengikat dan tidak dapat dipaksakan berlakunya oleh para pihak.
PatentdanRoyaltysuatu legal terms of art merupakan suatu phrase yang memiliki pengertian hukum tertentu dan pasti, yang tidak dapat digantikan dengan kata-kata lainnya. Sebagai contoh
Patent ( atau dalam bahasa Indonesia Paten ) adalah suatu terminologi hukum tentang hak ekslusif yang dimiliki oleh penemu berkaitan dengan invensinya (penemuannya) di bidang teknologi, baik proses maupun produk yang mengandung unsur kebaruan, langkah inventif serta dapat diterapkan dalam industri. Karya intelektual manusia yang bukan berupa penemuan di bidang teknologi seperti halnya karya seni tidak dapat disebut sebagai Patent , sebab terminologi Patent hanya untuk penemuan di bidang teknologi, jika karya seni maka disebut Hak Cipta (Copyrights).Royaltyadalah suatu konpensasi berupa pembayaran atas penggunaan suatu kepemilikan,
umumnyaRoyalty berkaitan dengan penggunaan Hak Kekayaan
Ac t ivit y 1 :
Writ e one pa ra gra ph using le ga l t e r m “ “, “ a nd “
Patent is ... ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
The copyright owner has an exclusive rights to use and to give.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Ac t ivit y 2:
Write a paragraph using legal term ,
TWO MAJOR LEGAL SYSTEM IN THE WORLD
T
wo major legal systems developed in the world are the Anglo American Common Law System and the Romano Germanic Civil Law System.The Romano-Germanic Civil Law System, which is commonly called the Civil Law System or continental civil law followed by some countries such as: Austria, Belgium, Greece, Indochina, Indonesia, Latin America, The Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain, South Korea, Turkey, and Switzerland. Historically, the term civil law comes from Latin wordjus civile
which was opposed tojus gentium. On the other hand, the Anglo-American Common Law System, which is commonly called the Common Law System or the Anglo Saxon or the Case Law System followed by The United States of America, The United Kingdom, Australian, and Singapore. These legal systems are di erent each other especially from their source. In the Civil Law System the
as the primary source of law in this system. Consequently, when the court has a case, it is usually unbound by precedent. While in
Common law system is the system of laws originated and developed in England and based on court decisions. The system
law such as codi ed law. Under the common-law system, when
READING COMPREHENSION SECTION 2
a court decides and reports its decision concerning a particular case, the case becomes part of the body of law and can be used
This use of precedents is known as stare decisis. In the US, this decision is known as the Doctrine of Stare Decisis (to stand by the decision).8 Generally the term common law is used to describe
a system where the law is built up through the decisions of the courts. Judicial decision is a decision about an individual lawsuit issued by the courts. Through judicial decision the judge explains the legal reasoning used to decide the case. This system has been used since the Middle Ages. Philosophically, in this system law is rooted from custom and precedent. Therefore neither the creation of a sovereign nor dictated or invented by legal dictation, but handed down in a continuous process of interpretation and reinterpretation of the signi cance of previous custom.
The law in the civil law system was adopted from the Romans where the compilation of Roman law known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. The further important sources of the civil law system are the French Civil Code of 1804 or known as the Napoleonic Code and the German Civil Code of 1896, later on the two of latest code become models for countries that followed civil law system.9
In some Civil law countries, even though their formal prime
enacted bythe legislative branch or the House of Representative or parliaments, they also have other important sources of law, namely: Custom, Treaty both Multilateral Treaty and Bilateral Treaty, also Judicial decisions. On contrary, in some Common Law System countries, such as the United States, they also have
of modern law in the United States are Constitutions, Statutes and Treaties. Treaty is an agreement formally signed, rati ed,
8 Henry R. Cheeseman,Contemporary Business & E-Commerce Law, Fourth Edition, 2000, Prentice Hall International (UK) Limited, London, page 12.
or adhered to between nations or sovereigns: an international
and governed by international law10.
Recently, it is di cult to say that a country has only followed one Legal System because practically they tend to follow both common law and civil law system. For instance, even though Indonesia in general known as a part of Civil Law Country which has many Acts or laws to regulate its society such as ; the Act No.4, 2004 concerning Judicial Power, the Act No. 19, 2002 concerning Copyright, etc. However in some practices it has also followed Common Law System especially in eld of Business Law.
Question and Answers using the TOEFL-like Model Test
Questions 1-12
1. What does this passage mainly discuss? (A) The Court System
(B) The Legal System in Indonesia (C) The Legal System in the world (D) The Doctrine of Stare Decisis.
2. What is the purpose of the passage? (A) To inform
(B) To persuade (C) To criticize (D) To apologize
10 Bryan A Garner, 2004, Black s Law Dictionary, Eighth Edition, Thomson West, the USA, page 1540.
Answer all questions about the information in the passage on the basis of what is stated or implied in that passage by choosing the
3. The words Civil Law in paragraph 2 line 6-7 refers to (A) The Common Law System
(B) The Romano-Germanic Civil Law System (C) The Doctrine of Stare Decisis
(D) The Constitution
4. The term civil law comes from wordjus civile which is (A) French
(B) English (C) Latin (D) Roman
5. According to this passage, which country follows The Civil Law System?
(A) The United States of America (B) Australia
(C) Singapore (D) Indonesia
6. In Common Law System the important source of the law is :
(B) Statute
(D) Code
7. The phrase the legislative branch in line 10 paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to
(A) The House of Representative (B) The Executive
8. When the court has a case in the civil law country is usually (A) Unbound by precedent
(B) Bound by precedent
(C) Bound by the Doctrine of Stare Decisis
9. To decide a case at the court it is very important for judges to explain their
(A) Legal reasoning (B) Legal meaning (C) Legal wording (D) Legal improving
10. The French Civil Code of 1804 also known as (A) The German Civil Code
(B) The Napoleonic Code (C) The Romano code (D) The England code
11. The word for instance in line 3-4 paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to
(A) For example (B) Etc
(C) such as (D) as follow
12. The Act No. 4, 2004 concerning (A) Judicial power
(B) Copyright
TENTANG READING COMPREHENSION 2
Civil Law System atau yang juga dikenal sebagai Sistem
Hukum Eropa Kontinental atauThe Romano-Germanic Civil Law
Systemdan Sistem HukumCommon Lawatau Sistem Hukum Anglo Saxon adalah termasuk dua sistem hukum yang paling banyak pengikutnya di dunia. Sistem hukum Eropa Kontinental (Civil Law
) diikuti oleh negara-negara seperti Belgia, Belanda, Indonesia, Amerika Latin, Korea Selatan dan Portugal. Termonologi Civil Law berasal dari bahasa Latin yaitu dari terminologi jus civile .
Di negara-negara penganutCivil Law,sistem hukumnya diadopsi dari hukum Romawi yaitu dari the Corpus Juris Civilis. Sumber hukum penting lainnya juga berasal dari Hukum Perancis yaitu the Napoleonic Code 1804 dan hukum Jerman yaitu the German Civil Code 0f 1896. Sumber hukum yang paling utama di negara-negara penganut Civil Law adalah hukum tertulis yang dibuat oleh badan legislatif dan pemerintahan seperti misalnya perundang-undangan maupun Kodi kasi. Sementara itu sumber hukum lainnya yang tidak dibuat oleh badan legislatif meliputi: Kebiasaan, Traktat dan Keputusan Pengadilan.
Sistem Hukum Common law atau yang juga dikenal dengan
Terjemahkan dan buatlah kalimat dengan menggunakanlegal term berikut:
The important source of the civil law system
b. Court =
.
c. Case law =
.
d. Court decision =
.
e. Doctrine =
.
f. Custom =
.
g. Precedent =
.
Activity 3:
Pengenalan lebih banyak tentang legal term
a. Legal system =
.. . .
.. . .
b. Legal reasoning =
.. . .
.. . .
c. Judicial power = .
.. . .
.. . .
d. The House of Representative = ..
.. . .
.. . .
e. Copyrights =
.. . .
.. . .
f. Patent =
.. . .
.. . .
g. Unbound =
.. . .
.. . .
Activity 4:
READING COMPREHENSION SECTION 3
Law and its sourcesTHE INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ITS SOURCES
I
nternational law comprises a system of rules and principles that govern the international relations between sovereign states and other institutional subjects of international law such as the United Nations11. Although state is still the most important ofthe subject of international law because of their fullest capacities, other institutional namely: Vatican, ICRC ( International
United Nations and the African Union, Individual, and the Multi National Corporations also known as subjects of international law.
State considered as the most important and most powerful of the subjects of international law because they are capable of possessing and exercising rights and dutiesunder international law. As a subject of international law, State has capacity to the fullest degree: the ability to make claimsbeforeinternational and nationaltribunals, to be subject to some or all of the obligations imposed by international law, to have power to conclude valid international agreements (treaties), to enjoy some or all of the immunities from the jurisdiction of the nationals court of other States.12 According to Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention
on Rights and Duties of States 1933, the State as a person of international law should possess the following quali cations: (a)
a permanent population; (b) a de ned territory; (c) government; and (d) a capacity to enter into relations with other states.
Although State is the powerful subject of international law, we may say that we are without doubt to recognize the non State actors such the United Nations as a subject of international law through the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice (the ICJ). For instance inReparation of Injuries Case, the Advisory Opinion of the ICJ says that13:
In the opinionof the Court, the Organization was intended to exercise and enjoy, and is in fact exercising and enjoying functions and rights which can only be explained on the basis of the possession of large measure of international personality and the capacity to operate upon an international plane.
Accordingly,the Court has come to the conclusion that the Organization is an international person. That is not same thing as saying that it is a State, which is certainly is not, or that its legal legal personality and rights and duties are the same as those of a State. Still less is it the same thing as saying that it is a super state , whatever that expression may mean. It does not even imply that all its rights and duties must be upon the international plane, any more that all the rights and duties of a State must be upon than plane. What it does mean is that it is a subject of international law and capable of possessing international rights and duties, and that it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringinginternational claims.
International law is still interesting topic to be discussed. Some scholars or closely many jurists argue that hallmark of a system of law is that its rules are capable of being enforced against malefactors. However, International Law is not generally against international law by saying that it is not true law.14 Beside it is
13 Pengantar Hukum Internasional, PT Alumni, Bandung, hal 102-103.
not ge
that international law has some weakness such as only State can in uences the development of customary rules of international law through State practice and only State can enter into e ective multilateral treaties not for MNC or NGO for instance. Although it is still debatable, the existence of international law contribute important role in international relations among its subjects.
Originally as a system of rules governing the relation of states, International Law has many sources. According to Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice the sources of international law are international conventions or treaties, international custom, general principles of law, judicial decisions, writings of publicists, resolutions of international organizations.
do not have any legally binding force or considered as non-binding agreements.15
Article 38 of the Statute of the ICJ provides that:
(1) The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with
(a) international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting States;
(b) International custom., as evidence of a general practice
accepted as law;
(c) The general principles of law recognized by civilized nations (d) Subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and
the teachings of the most highly quali ed publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.
(2) This provision shall not prejudice the power of the Court to decide a case ex aequo at bono, if the parties agree thereto.
Question and Answers using the TOEFL Model
Questions 1-15
1. The most important of the subject of international law is (A) Individual
(B) State (C) ICRC (D) Vatican
2. Other important subjects of international law are (A) Vatican and ICRC
(B) Multi National Corporations (MNC) and the ICJ (C) NGO and the ICJ
(D) The ICJ and MNC
3. The wordduties in paragraph 2 line 3 is closest in meaning to
(A) Rights (B) Obligations (C) Capacities (D) Options
4. The wordbeforein paragraph 2 line 6 is closest in meaning to
(B) To the or in front up the international (C) The former international
(D) The beginning of international
Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is stated or implied in that passage by
5. The wordtribunals in paragraph 2 line 6 is closest in meaning to
(A) The Courts
(B) The area where people sit to watch football (C) The top area of building
(D) The Food Courts
6. The wordconclude in paragraph 2 line 8 is closest in meaning to
(A) enter into (B) write (C) conclusion (D) refuse
7. The State as a person of international law should possess the following quali cations: a permanent population, a de ned territory, government, and a capacity to enter into relations with other states according to :
(A). Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States 1933
(B) Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States 1923
(C) Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice
(D) Article 31 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice
8. Through the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice in Reparation of Injuries Case international communities
(A) very reluctant to accept the United Nations as subject of international law
(C) very reluctant to accept the United Nations as subject of international law
(D) without doubt to accept the Non Government Organization as subject of international law
9. The wordthe Court in line 8 paragraph 3 refer to (A) The National Court
(B) The ICJ (C) The ICC
(D) The International Court
10. The word international claims in the last paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to
(A) international disputes (B) international codes
(C) international codi cations (D) international regulations
11. The weakness of international law is (A) generally enforceable
(B) generally unenforceable (C) generally avoidable (D) generally unavoidable
12. According to Article 38 of Statute of the ICJ one of the source of international law is
(A) State
(B) The general principles of law (C) NGO
(D) Vatican
wordsubject to is closest in meaning to (A) comply to
(B) against to (C) ignore to (D) opposite to
14. The purpose of these passage is (A) to apologize
(B) to respect (C) to criticize (D) to inform
15. The passages generally discuss
(A) national law and international law
(B) international law and the source of international law (C) national law and the source of international law (D) international law and the source of national law
Ac t ivit y 5
Pre pa re for de bat e c onc e r ning St a t e c olla pse
Whether Somalia is a State?
Prepare a group to present that Somalia is a State but considered
The other group debate and argue that Somalia is not a State also supported by strong arguments.
Ac t ivit y 6
Answ e r t he follow ing que st ions a nd w rit e dow n your a nsw e rs in your ow n w ords.
3. What are the elements of a State? 4. What is meant by Advisory Opinion?
teachings of the most highly quali ed publicists of the various
7. What is the meaning ofdecide a case ex aequo at bono?
TENTANG READING COMPREHENSION 3
subyek-subyek hukum lainnya dalam ranah hukum internasional diklasi kasikan sebagai subyek hukum terbatas atau subyek hukum yang tidak penuh. Yang termasuk dalam katagori ini seperti Individu, Vatikan (Tahta Suci), Organisasi Internasional seperti PBB dan Badan-badan Khususnya (Specialized Agencies) yaitu seperti International Labor Organization (ILO), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), United nations Educational, Scienti c and Cultural Organization (UNISCO)
dan Badan-badan Khusus lainnya.
Keberadaan dan status organisasi internasional PBB
(Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa) sebagai subyek hukum
internasional sudah tidak diragukan lagi terutama sejak dikeluarkannya Pendapat Hukum (Advisory Opinion) oleh Mahkamah Internasional (the International Court of Justice) dalam kasus yang terkenal dengan sebutan Reparation of Injuries Case. Dalam kasus ini, majelis Umum PBB meminta suatu Pendapat Hukum kepada Mahkamah Internasional berkaitan dengan kasus terbunuhnya seorang anggota Komisi PBB yang sedang menjalankan tugasnya di Israel pada tahun 1958 yaitu Pangeran
kepada Mahkamah Internasional dimintakan Pendapat
Hukum , apakah PBB mempunyai kemampuan hukum (legal
capacity) untuk mengajukan klaim ganti rugi kepada pemerintah yang bertanggungjawab baik secarade jure ataude facto. Setelah dilakukan serangkaian proses pengujian perihal status dan kedudukan PBB menurut hukum internasional, akhirnya mahkamah Internasional memberikanAdvisory Opinion dan dalam kesimpulannya menyatakan bahwa : PBB adalah subyek hukum internasional yang cakap atau mampu untuk memiliki hak-hak dan kewajiban-kewajiban internasional, serta memiliki kecakapan untuk mempertahankan hak-haknya dalam mengajukan klaim atau perkara ke hadapan sidang pengadilan .
PBB d adikan diskusi hangat dalam kapasitasnya sebagai subyek hukum internasional, akan tetapi juga keberadaan Perusahaan-perusahaan Multi Nasional ( MNC). Dalam era globalisasi, keberadaan, perkembangan dan operasional MNC semakin mendunia melewati batas-batas negara, yang mana keberadaannya selain membawa dampak positif seperti misalnya membuka peluang untuk lapangan pekerjaan dan alih tehnologi, namun dalam kesempatan yang bersamaan kehadiran MNC ini juga membawa dampak negatif, yaitu terjadi penyalahgunaan HAM dan lingkungan di seputar daerah dimana perusahaan multi nasional tersebut beroperasi seperti dalam kasus Bhopal. Diskusi-diskusi hangat berkaitan dengan penomena tersebutpun mulai banyak dilakukan, mempertanyakan perihal apakah MNC memiliki kapasitas hukum (legal capacity) dan dapat diajukan di muka sidang pengadilan untuk dimintai pertanggungjawabnya dan kewajibannya.
Negara, selain sering dikaji dalam kapasitasnya sebagai salah satu subyek hukum internasional, juga menarik untuk dikaji dari aspek kriteria apa yang harus dipenuhi agar suatu negara memiliki legal capacity sebagai suatu negara. Menurut pasal 1 Konvensi Montevideo 1933 Tentang Hak-Hak Dan Kewajiban Negara, negara sebagai subyek dalam hukum internasional harus memenuhi kuali kasi sebagai berikut: memiliki penduduk permanen, memiliki wilayah teritorial, memiliki pemerintah, dan memiliki kecakapan untuk melakukan hubungan hukum dengan negara-negara lainnya.
Sehubungan dengan sumber-sumber hukum internasional, menurut Pasal 38 Statuta Mahkamah Internasional (the Statute of the International Court of Justice), sumber hukum internasional terdiri dari : Konvensi atau traktat, kebiasaan-kebiasaan Internasional, Prinsip-Prinsip Hukum Umum, Putusan pengadilan Internasional, Doktrin, dan Resolusi dari Organisasi Internasional. Sumber hukum internasional dapat berupa Hard
Hard Law, sementara itu Resolusi dan Deklarasi dari Organisasi Internasional, , Prinsip-Prinsip Hukum Internasional, Code of Conducts ,Code of Practices adalah contoh dari
Dilihat dari kekuatan mengikatnya, adalah suatu
instrumen hukum yang tidak mengikat secara tegas atau strict
(non binding), melainkan berasal dari sumber yang luas dan eksibel dalam kerjasama internasional.16
16 ),
READING COMPREHENSION SECTION 4
Read carefully the following topic concerning wrongfulconduct of MNC
The Human Right Abuses and MNC s Wrongful Conduct
S
ome studies have shown that there has been an increased presence of corporations in areas with natural resources, which are instable and have poor governance. In the last decade, several developing countries such as Colombia,direct investment. The multinational companies, for instance in Angola in both the oil and diamond sector have undermined their business ethics and as a result, have contributed to massive human rights abuses.17 Classi ed as a non state actor, the MNC
has been criticized for contributing to a number of environmental damage, armed con ict, slavery, forced labor, torture and rape. Also corrupt governments play an important role to several wrongful conducts of corporations. The wrongful conduct of
Bhopal case, Doel I v. Unocol Corp case, John Doe Et Al v. Exxon Mobil Corporation case, and Filartiga v. Pena-Irala case. The complexity around MNCs is still under debate and it is unclear whether MNCs, when
category, where and who has jurisdiction. These questions still dominate the discussion concerning the bad behavior of MNCs or wrongful conduct of MNCs.
17 Victor Luvhengo,Multinational Corporations and Human Rights Violations in African Con ict Zones: The Case Study of Angola 1992-2005, accessed on 15-6-2009, available at
Some scholars argue that concern to the wrongful conduct of MNCs, principally based on human right obligations, each government has to use all appropriate means to ensure that actors operating within its territory or otherwise subject to its jurisdiction comply with national legislation designed to give e ect to human rights18. The rst instrument that dealt with
human rights was the UDHR which was declared and adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Although
it is not a treaty (it was considered as essence of moral and political nature), it has become an authoritative text and has been adopted as international customary law.19 The preamble of this
declaration makes clear that every individual and every organ of society, including corporation have to promote and respect human rights. By understanding the essence of this preamble of the UDHR, we may say that corporations as an organ of society have to respect this international customary law, and therefore the UN mechanism reaches corporations.
The possibility of imposing the UN mechanism related with accountability of MNCs becomes more clear through the UN Doc.E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/12/Rev.2 concerning norm on the responsibilities of transnational corporation (the TNC) and other business enterprises with regard to human rights. As a result of this document we understand that besides states, the primary responsibility to protect human rights is also shared by the transnational corporations and other business enterprises as organs of society. Moreover, they are also responsible for promoting and securing the human rights set forth in the UDHR.
The TNC, their o cers and persons working for them are also obligated to respect generally recognized responsibilities and norms contained in United Nations treaties and other international instruments.20
18 Henry Steiner, Philip Alston, Ryan Goodman, 2008, International Human Rights In ContextLaw Politics Morals, Oxford University Press, page 1399
19 Ingrid Westendorp, 2007,Women and Housing gender makes a Di erence, Intersentia School of Human Rights Research, Maastricht, page 6.
Question and Answer using TOEFL-Like Approach
Questions 1-12
1. What does this passage mainly discuss? (A) The human right obligations
(B) The wrongful conduct of MNCs (C) The UDHR
(D) The UN mechanism
2. What is the purpose of this passage? (A) To inform
(B) To persuade (C) To criticize (D) To apologize
3. The words Classi ed as a non state actor in line 10 paragraph 1 refers to
(A) The UDHR (B) The MNCs
(C) The United Nations General Assembly (D) The Consumer
4. The MNC has been criticized for contributing to a number of environmental damage, armed con ict, slavery, forced labor, torture and rape. The word contributing is closest in meaning to
(B) Conducting (C) Making (D) Refusing
Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage by
5. According to these passage what the rst instrument that dealt with human rights?
(A) The Customary Law
(B) The United Nations General Assembly 1948 (C) The UDHR
(D) The UN Doc.E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/12/Rev.2
6. The word it in paragraph 2 line 9 is closest in meaning to (A) Treaty
(B) The UDHR
(C) National legislation
(D) The United Nations General Assembly 1948
(A) The Act (B) Convention (C) Legislation (D) Contract
8. The word accountability of MNCs in paragraph 3 line 2 is closest in meaning to
(A) Possibility of MNCs (B) Responsibility of MNCs (C) Availability of MNCs (D) Reasonability of MNCs
9. The possibility of imposing the UN mechanism related with accountability of MNCs becomes clear through
(A) The UN Doc.E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/12/Rev.2 (B) The UN mechanism
10. The preamble of UDHR makes clear that every individual and every organ of society, including corporation have to (A) obey the regulation
(B) promote and respect human rights (C) declare their activities
(D) Respect legislation.
11. Based on the Norm of responsibilities of transnational corporation (the TNC) and other business enterprises with regard to human rights is not only states has responsibility to protect human rights but also
(A) Country
(B) The Transnational Corporation (C) Society
(D) NGO ( Non Government Organization)
12. The TNC in line 11-12 paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to (A) Small Business
(B) MNC (C) NGO (D) Company
TENTANG READING COMPREHENSION 4
korporasi atau perusahaan ini dengan kekuatan yang dimilikinya terutama dalam bidang ekonomi dan teknologi, dikritisi telah mengakibatkan berbagai pelanggaran-pelanggaran, termasuk di dalamnya pelanggaran yang berkaitan dengan Hak Asasi Manusia /HAM (Human Rights).
Sehubungan dengan pelanggaran hukum terkait dengan
HAM yang dilakukan oleh MNC (Wrongful Conduct of MNC atau
MNC s Human Rights Abuses), masih tetap menjadi isu penting dan perdebatan yang hangat di dunia internasional (arena hukum internasional), apakah korporasi sebagai subyek hukum bukan negara dapat dimintai pertanggungjawaban terutama yang berkaitan dengan pelanggaran HAM. Para ahli berpendapat bahwa setiap negara (pemerintah) hendaknya mengusahakan agar menggunakan berbagai instrumen hukum berkaitan dengan kewajiban terhadap perlindungan HAM. Salah satu instrumen hukum yang dapat digunakan untuk menjerat korporasi atas perbuatannya yang melanggar HAM adalah dengan menerapkan Deklarasi Universal tentang Hak Asasi Manusia (the UDHR).
Theoretically, corporation cases can be (1) B. brought to the court in the host and home country1 The US Federal Court,
through Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA) permits corporation human rights abuses to be (2) . in the home state of the MNC. Since the ATCA (3) .., . a large numbers of corporation human rights cases have been brought to the US Federal Courts. Pursuant to Section 1350 of the ATCA, the district courts shall have original jurisdiction of any civil action
of nations or a treaty of the United States.2 In the Filartiga v
Pena Irala,(4) held that torture is a violation of the law of the nations, therefore human rights abuses without a doubt fall under the ATS. The statute limits its jurisdiction for alien plainti s and non citizens of the United States.3 Simply, the
ATS permits aliens to bring their civil lawsuits within a human rights case, such as genocide, crime against humanity and torture(5)
as the US courts have jurisdiction over the defendants. Beth
of the ATS is corporate accountability for tortuous acts, jurisdiction over extraterritorial torts, and personal jurisdiction over a company incorporated in the US, and the line of cases applying the ATCA to private parties.
Activity 7
Human Rights Cases through the Alien Tort Claims Act
Choose the best word or phrase to ll each gap in Activity 7 above from A, B, C, or D below:
Pilihlah kata-kata yang paling tepat A, B, C atau D, untuk melengkapi dan mengisi paragraph yang kosong dalam Activity 6 tersebut di atas.
Berikut ini kata-kata yang dapat dipilih, lakukan sebagaimana dicontohkan dalam nomor (1).
(1) A. bring B.brought C. go D. sue (2) A. sued B. sue C. bring D. submit
(3) A. was enacted B. is made C. make D. produce
READING COMPREHENSION
SECTION 5
T
he World Trade Organization (WTO) exists to create the conditions in which trade among its members can be implemented as freely and fairly as possible. To achieve those goals, the WTO provides and regulates the legal framework whichgovernsworld trade.21These regulationscover international trade
in goods, trade in services and trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights. In practice, however it is not always the WTO members agree on the correct interpretation and application of
occur between the WTO members.
have triggered considerable controversy and public debate, such as the EC-Harmones case, the US-Shrimp case and the EC-Asbestos dispute.22 The disputes concerning rights and obligations of WTO
members are solved through multilateral procedures of the
that the DSU provides more than one method to dispute,
namely: consultations or negotiations, adjudication by panels and
21 International legal English Certi cate sample Exam Papers, University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, page 12,
ilec-2.pdf, accessed 19 November 2009
the Appellate Body, Arbitration, and Good O ces, Conciliation and Mediation.
government to government also known as G to G dispute, such as inIndonesian-Autos Case, a case concerning Pioneer Company
MOBNAS Case. In this case a WTO members (three complaining governments: Japan, the United States and European Union)
and inconsistent with the free trade regulations. It means the International Organization, Non Governmental Organizations, Individuals or Industry Association have no direct access to bring a case to the WTO.
Although this mechanism only for G to G , under Appellate Body case law, panels and the Appellate Body have the authority
referred to as amicus curiae briefs ( friend of the court briefs). Henry Campbell Black mentions that the meaning of amicus curiae as friend of the court. A person with strong interest in or
Question 1-10
1. The wordgoverns in paragraph 1 line 5 is closest in meaning to
(A) arrange (B) regulate (C) coordinate (D) cover
2. The phrasethese regulationsin paragraph 1 line 5 refers to (A) The WTO Agreement
(B) The NGO Agreement (C) The MNC Agreement (D) The WIPO Agreement
3. The author in the passage need to inform you that
(A) the WTO members are always agree on the correct interpretation and application of WTO
(B) the WTO members are not always agree on the correct interpretation and application of WTO
(C) the WTO members refuse to accept the correct interpretation and application of WTO
(D) the WTO members do not refuse the correct interpretation and application of WTO
WTO
among them
(B) has to obey the International Court of Justice (ICJ) (C) subject to the International Criminal Court (ICC) (D) subject to the Human Rights Court.
5. The word in paragraph 2 line 11 is closest in meaning
to (A) help (B) solve (C) break (D) arrange
6. The parties who are have direct access to bring their dispute to the WTO are
(A) government to non government (B) government to government (C) government to individual (D) government to non individual
7. The worddisputeis closest in meaning to (A) lawsuit
(B) law (C) abuse
(D) right and obligation
8. The phrase amicus curiae briefs in paragraph 12 line 11 refers to
(A) enemy of the court briefs (B) friend of the court briefs (C) the court briefs
have access
amicus curiae briefs in the dispute
(C) both as a party and bring amicus curiae briefs (D) to bring dispute
10. The purpose of the author in this passage is (A) to inform
Ac t ivit y 8
TOEFL IBT
TOEFL I BT1
Perkembangan model soal dalam Reading TOEFL IBT adalah
disediakan (umumnya ada 6 pilihan jawaban). Tiga jawaban yang dipilih digunakan untuk melengkapi summarysuatu Reading. Arahan untuk mengerjakan soal secara umum ditulis sebagai
berikut :
passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not included in the passage or are minor points from the passage.
READING COMPREHENSION SECTION 6
THE UNIFORM INTERPRETATION OF NON-CONFORMITY GOODS AND BREACH OF CONTRACT ON CISG CASE LAW1
I. INTRODUCTION
C
reating uniform interpretation on the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) asConvention. Basically Article 7(1) of the CISG provides three guidelines for interpreting the convention. The rst guideline is its international character, the second guideline is the need to promote uniformity in the application of the convention, and the third guideline is the observance of good faith in international trade.2 However, concerning uniform interpreting of the
convention in its application in CISG case law, including in the case of breach the contract as ruled in Article 25 and cancellation or avoided of contract as a remedy of breach of contract and also conformity of the contract based on Article 35 of the CISG, some scholars have criticized that the interpretation of this convention
uniformity. For example in the case of The New Zealand Mussels Case ( Germany Supreme Court),The Frozen Pork Case andItaldecor s.a.s v. Yiu s Industries Case ( Italy Court Appeal).
The legal questions analyzed in this study are why the uniformity in case of breaching of contract and non-conformity of
1 This research conducted as requirement for course International Comparative and Commercial Law in Master Degree Program Law And Globalisation, Faculty of Law Maastricht University, The Netherlands, 2009.
goods under CISG vary in some law cases?, what are the possible solution can be taken to create the uniformity in implementing CISG in di erent court jurisdictions?
This study employs a qualitative approach, utilizing primary legal sources and secondary source materials through library research3.
II THE CONCEPT OF UNIFORMITY UNDER THE CISG
What is uniformity ?
In general, uniformity means it is something which has only one form, or the opposite word of multiform. Concerning the court decision, the uniformity means every court will do the same or treating similar situations in the same way when applying the convention by giving everyone the same interpretation. In regard to contract of international sale of goods, the CISG has clearly ruled that the concept of uniformity is to ensure the Convention is interpreted in the same way in di erent jurisdictions4.An
autonomous interpretation should be applied in regard to the convention. Martin Gebauer emphases that an interpretation may be quali ed as autonomous if it does not proceed by reference to the meanings and particular concepts of a speci c domestic law but the Convention s terms and concepts have to be interpreted in the context of the Convention itself.5 Article 7(1) of
the CISG regulate that : in the interpretation of this Convention,
3 As the primary legal sources in this study are the CISG and CISG Case Laws. The secondary sources are textbooks and some journal concerning the CISG. In legal research, case law , treaties and statutes constituted as part of primary source materials and such textbooks and journal fall within secondary source materials. See The Sta s of George Washington University Journal of International Law and Economic,Guide to International Legal Research
Publisher, United States, 1993, page 37.
4 Roy Goode, Herbert Kronke, Ewan Mc Kendrick, Je rey Wool, Transnational Commercial Law Text, Cases and Materials, Oxford University Press, New York, 2007, page 273
regard is to be had to its international character and needed to promote uniformity in its application and the observance of good faith in international trade .
In regard to promoting uniformity, some scholars suggest that it is very important to distinguish and understand between uniform interpretation and uniform application. Uniform interpretation suggest that di erent courts (and arbitral tribunal)
uniform application means that the di erent decision-makers who decide similar CISG cases have to achieve similar results or outcomes.6 Even theoretically legal experts or courts realize
the di erent concepts of uniform interpretation and uniform application, however in practice the uniformity of CISG interpretation is not easy to be applied. Some case laws in di erent court jurisdictions tend to show that the interpretation vary, such as in the case of non-conformity contract (Article 35 of the CISG ), especially in regard to Article 38 concerning the right of the buyer to claim damages, the buyer must examine the goods within as short a period as is practicable in the circumstances . How long is it considered within as short a period ? The answer is unclear. The similar situation exists in the case of fundamental breach as a result of lack of conformity, as it is ruled in Article 25. Pursuant to Article 49 (1) the buyer has right to declare avoidance of contract as a remedy for breach of contract. In this situation courts also tend to apply di erently whether avoidance of contract exists or not. Study shows that the gap between theory and practice in interpreting the Vienna Convention ( CISG ) is caused by the tendentious of judges in interpreting the CISG with the domestic legal lens instead of Article 7 (1), also caused by the reluctance of courts to refer to other court jurisdictions .7 In contrary, simply
6 Joseph Lookofsky, 2008,Understanding the CISG A Compact Guide to the 1980 United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Wolters Kluwer Law & Business, United States of America, page 33.
said, the more courts regard to other CISG court decision the more interpretation will be made uniformly. Some CISG case laws will be studied to describe that phenomenon.
III. CASE LAW AND INTERPRETATION OF THE CISSG NON CONFORMITY OF GOODS
What is non conformity of the goods?
The contract on sale of goods fall under the form of CISG Article 1 (1) (a), when the contract has international character, both parties are Contracting States and whose places of business are in di erent States. The contract will be concluded if an acceptance of an o er becomes e ective (Article 33). According to Article 35 (1) the seller has obligation to deliver goods in the quality, quantity and description as required by the contract and which are contained or packaged in the manner required by the contract. If the seller fails to perform his obligation, for example the seller delivers goods in lack of quality, then that condition may be considered as non- conformity of the goods. Some case law concerning non-conformity of goods are as follows:
The Chicago Prime Packers, Inc. v Northam Food Trading Co.
In case non-conformity of goods Chicago Prime Packers, Inc. v. Northam Food Trading Co., et al in2004, the U.S. District Court, Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division8, exercise the main
issues whether Northam examined the goods (pork loin ribs) within as short a period as was practicable under the circumstances and whether Northam gave notice to Chicago Prime of the alleged
8 Annabel Teiling, CISG: U.S. Court Relies on Foreign Case Law and the Internet, Uniform Law Review / Revue de droit uniforme, 2004, available at
discovered the alleged lack of conformity. Under Article 36 of CISG, the seller has to liable for any lack of conformity. Article 38 requires the buyer to examine the goods, or cause them to be examined, within as short a period of time. Article 39 mention that buyer loses the right to rely on a lack of conformity of the goods if he does not give notice to the seller within a reasonable time. The decision of the US District Court in this case is that Northam failed to examine the ribs within as short a period as is practicable under the circumstances because Northam inspected
satisfy to inspect the goods within a reasonable time. The Court looked some other similar CISG cases law as basic consideration to determine its decision9. Inthe German case No. 2 C 395/93 court
determined a reasonable time to give notice within three days of delivery, and then in other German clothing case, the court held that the buyer has to immediately examine the goods and not more than a week. In the Italian case ofSport D Hiver di Genevieve Culet v. Ets Louys et Fil, the court determined that when defects are easy to be found by a prompt examination, the time of notice must be reduced. Based on analysis of foreign decisions, the US District Court held that Northam not only fail to examine the shipment of ribs in as short a period of time as practicable,
should have discovered the alleged of non-conformity. Northam
9 The US District Court look to The German case No. 2 C 395/93, Amtsgericht Riedlingen (21 October 1944) UNILEX. In this case the buyer lost his right to rely on lack of conformity by failing to promptly inspect ham delivered by the seller or to give notice of the ham s non-conformity within a reasonable time. The German Court found that because the alleged defect was easily recognizable, therefore the buyer should have examined the goods within three days of delivery. The U.S. District Court also cited another German case dealing with insu cient quantity as a defect. In this case, the German Court held that examination of the quantity of items delivered must be done immediately at the place of performance of the obligation or at the agreed destination. The German Court held that the Swiss buyer of German clothing should have examined or caused the goods to be examined as soon as they arrived at the agreed destination. It further held that examination of the quantity
ribs were spoiled. The Court found this period of time to be unreasonable under the circumstances.
By looking at many other court decisions, the US District Court inthe Chicago Prime Packers has showed his e ort to create uniformity in interpreting the CISG. Understanding the CISG s language and regard to the general principles become an important part in interpreting the Convention. In its e ort to create uniformity in the application of the CISG, the US Court in this case referring to more foreign cases than any other available secondary authority10. The court using internet (UNILEX) as
potential source to get more information and international character concerning CISG case law11
Unlike the Chicago Prime Packers Inc, some CISG cases law show that court in interpreting Article 38 (1) of the CISG somehow is in uenced by its domestic law.
The New Zealand Mussels Case
The famous CISG case law which obviously in uenced by its own regulation of domestic court is the New Zealand Mussels Case12. The court found that the goods conformed to the contract;
10 Annabel Teiling,CISG: U.S. Court Relies on Foreign Case Law and the InternetA note on the decision inChicago Prime Packers v. Northam Food Trading [21 May 2004] United States District Court, N.D. Illinois, Eastern Division,
cisg/biblio/teiling.html,
11 InChicago Prime Packers, Inc., the District Court used Internet references throughout, ultimately to render a well researched and truly international decision. The most e cient and e ective tools to ensure decisions have international precedent or character is by using The UNILEX database. The UNILEX is a collection of international case law and bibliography on the CISG andUNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts.InChicago Prime Packers, Inc., the Court relied upon the detailed, translated abstracts of the decisions contained in UNILEX referring to it as an intelligent of Internet database of international case law on the CISG 12 The German Supreme Court ( Bundesgerichtshof 8 March 1995 ) have case between
the violence of German food regulation was defect in quality not a defect in title. Based on the opinion of the court, the exceeding limit of cadmium concentration was not lack of conformity since the mussels were still eatable. The German Supreme Court stated a principle that the public law regulations of the seller s place of business govern the conformity of goods according to Article 35(2). In this case Court identi ed three exceptions to the rule and considered the public standards of the buyer s country will prevail if: 1. the public laws of the buyer s country correspond to those in seller s country, 2. the buyer informed the seller about such provisions, 3. the seller knew or the seller had knowledge of the provisions due to special circumstances13. Furthermore the
German Supreme Court ruled that laws from the seller s country prevail. Finally the German Supreme Court held that the buyer had lost its right to claim buyer lack of conformity and declare the contract avoided, since the buyer had waited more than a month before he noti ed the seller about the non-conformity. Therefore it did not x within the reasonable time as ruled in Article 39(1) of the CISG.14
Referring to the public law regulations and placing domestic law prevail rather than the Convention itself is still questioned in regard to promoting uniformity under CISG. The decision on New Zealand mussel s case was criticized by Flectner15, he
stated that the court misread the Article 7 (1) and its principle of uniformity. This provision required a single global standard of merchantability for mussels and all goods under Article 35 (2) (a) of the CISG, but in fact court more interprets this Convention by referring to domestic law.
13 Tereza Kyselovska, Opcit, page 3.
14 CISG Case Presentation, Germany 8 March 1995 Supreme Court (New Zealand mussels
case ), page 2-3, available at l
