Ge raldine Clarke Re asse ssing re so urc e allo c atio n strate gie s in highe r e duc atio n: me tho ds fo r analysis
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 6 [1 9 9 7 ] 2 8 6 –2 9 2
fr a m es of r efer en ce. Th ese fr a m es of r efer en ce a r e con sider ed to be sou r ced fr om bu sin ess sch ools a n d a r e th e dr iver s wh ich cr ea te im por ta n t differ en tia l th in k in g in th e m in ds of today’s m a n a ger s. On th e oth er side of th e equ a tion it is on ly possible to con tem pla te a lter n a tive str a te gies w ith in th e w ider con text of a better edu ca ted a n d m or e in for m ed wor k -for ce a lso sou r ced fr om u n iver sities. Th er e-for e h igh er edu ca tion is a n in pu t in to both th e in ter n a l a n d exter n a l dim en sion s of cor por a te r ea lity. Con sequ en tly it is r ecipr oca lly im por -ta n t for u n iver sities to con sider th eir a ppr oa ch to str a te gy in th e ligh t of bu sin ess exper ien ce. Mor e pa r ticu la r ly, th e High er E du ca tion F u n din g Cou n cil for E n gla n d (HE F CE ) is con sider -in g a gr ea ter u se of -in stitu tion a l str a te gy sta te-m en ts to in for te-m its r esou r ce a lloca tion to fu n d tea ch in g. It r equ ir es th a t th e u n iver sity’s m ission sta tem en t n ow gives:
a clea r idea of ea ch in stitu tion ’s pu r pose a n d distin ctive ch a r a cter istics (HE F CE , 1996a ).
Wh ile th e fu n din g cou n cil h a s a lw ays m a de it explicit th a t th e in ter n a l a lloca tion of r esou r ces sh ou ld in n o w ay r eflect th e Cou n -cil’s a lloca tion to th e in stitu tion ; th e Cou n -cil’s objective (HE F C, 1996b) is to fu n d sim ila r a ctiv-ities a t a sim ila r r a te a cr oss th e cou n tr y. Th e pr esen t fu n din g m eth od w a s, in pa r t, in h er ited fr om pr eviou s bodies su ch a s th e Un iver sity Gr a n ts Com m ittee (UGC) a n d th e Polytech n ic a n d Colleges F u n din g Cou n cil(P CF C) wh ich fu n ded th e sa m e pr ocess a t differ en t r a tes.
T h e H E F CE n ow p r op os es t h a t in s t it u t ion s s h ou ld b id for a d d it ion a l n u m b er s on t h e b a s is of q u a lit y, d em a n d , n a t ion a l a n d
r e gion a l n eed s (H E F C, 1996c). T h is im p er a t ive is lik ely t o ou t la s t w h a t ever r ecom m en -d a t ion s t h e Dea r in g Com m it t ee m a k e. Clea r ly t h e gover n m en t ob ject ives w h ich a r e b ou n d u p in t h e H E F CE d ocu m en t u n d er p in a m ove t o a m or e com p et it ive en v ir on m en t in t h e h igh er ed u ca t ion sect or. T h e k ey p h r a se is “efficien cy ga in s” w h ich h a s, in t h e fi r st in s t a n ce, ca u sed a r et u r n t o t h e “m a ch in e or ga n iza t ion ” m en t a lit y. Som e u n iver sit ies h ave p u lled in p ow er a n d r esp on sib ilit y t o t h e cen t r e or a p ex of t h e h ier a r ch y.
As con st r a in ed com p et it ion h a s b ecom e t h e n or m , it is ea sy t o u n d er st a n d t h a t u n iver si-t ies in E n gla n d w ill s p ecia lize m or e in or d er t o com p et e a n d su r v ive. T h e a b ilit y of som e in s t it u t ion s t o offer a w id e r a n ge of su b ject ca t e gor ies is jeop a r d ized . In cr ea sed sp ecia l-iza t ion ca n , h ow ever, a lso b r in g a b ou t econ om ic a n d ed u ca t ion a l b en efi t s. T h e cr u x of t h e d eb a t e is w h a t d o u n iver s it ies, collec-t ively a n d in d iv id u a lly, en v isa ge a s collec-t h e p la ce a n d p osit ion of t h e h igh er ed u ca t ion sect or in t h e econ om y a n d s ociet y of t h e UK. H a s t h e com m it t ee of v ice-ch a n cellor s a n d p r in cip a ls (CVCP ) a ct ively en ga ged in t h is d eb a t e?
Fitting the appropriate resources
Wit h in t h e com p et it ive en v ir on m en t , b ein g m or e cu st om er led im p lies t h a t r esou r ces a r e m or e a p p r op r ia t ely t a r get ed t o r eleva n t n ich e m a r k et s. Ma r k et s a r e n ow id en t ifi ed by t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics of t h eir con su m er s a n d se gm en t ed a ccor d in g t o n ich e t r a it s. Alt er n a t ively t h ey ca n a lso b e d efi n ed by t h e or ga n iza -t ion a s a fu n c-t ion of -t h eir cor e com p e-t en cies. T h is is wh y Disn ey w a s a ble t o gr ow in com e fr om it s copy r igh t s even t h ou gh t h e or igin a l m a t er ia l, i.e. ca r t oon s, h a d p a st t h e d eclin e p h a se of t h e p r od u ct life cycle. Accor d in g t o Collis a n d Mon t gom er y (1995) r esou r ces ca n d ir ect a com p a n y ’s p er for m a n ce if t h ey a r e a ccu r a t ely id en t ifi ed a n d a ssessed . Th e r esou r ces or a sset s ca n b e p a r t icu la r com p e-t en cies a n d e-t h ey d ee-t er m in e e-t h e efficien cy a n d effect iven ess w it h wh ich a n or ga n iza t ion ca n p er for m it s fu n ct ion a l a ct iv it ies. Or ga n iza -t ion a l cu l-t u r e ca n b e on e of -t h ose a sse-t s if i-t p r ov id es coh esion a n d d r ives t h e or ga n iza t ion in t h e d ir ect ion of it s ob ject ives.
For u n iver sit ies, “w h er e a colle gia t e sy st em op er a t es, d r iven by con s en su s … h igh a ca d e-m ic s t a n d a r d s a n d a n et h os of p r ofession a l in t e gr it y p r eva il” (Willia m s, 1992). Bu t it h a s on ly b een op er a t ive in r esou r ce-p len t y en v i-r on m en t s; in d iv id u a ls i-r es oi-r t in g t o d efen d in g t er r it or ies in t im es of sca r cit y. In t h eor y, a colle gia t e u n iver sit y sect or wou ld in fl u en ce it s en v ir on m en t cr ea t in g gr ea t er eq u it y a n d d em ocr a cy w it h in societ y. In p r a ct ice, a Table I
Fo ur ins truc tio nal mo de ls o f highe r e duc atio n c o s t
Relative Relative
Instructional Labour Capital labour labour Costs of
model costs costs intensity productivity ouput
Conventionala H M H M MH
RUM Lb VH M H VH ML
Programmed independentc H M M H M
Programmed learningd H H M H H-VH
Key:
VH = very high; H = high; MH = moderately high; M = moderate; ML = moderately low
aTraditional mix of lec tures, tutorials and lab work; homogeneous servic e; predic table
outc omes; easy to program
bRUML – Resourc e Utilization Model of Learning – large lec ture groups foc using on
ac ademic exc ellenc e; intensive tutorials, no fringe subjec ts
cStudent c entred; broad-framed syllabus, student c hoic e and initiative, more work
stations, staff training in c ounselling and determine timetable with students, e.g. Lanc aster, NE London
dKeiffer model-distanc e learning staff write lec ture programmes and deliver via media.
Counselling required for non-traditional students, e.g. Open University
Ge raldine Clarke Re asse ssing re so urc e allo c atio n strate gie s in highe r e duc atio n: me tho ds fo r analysis
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 6 [1 9 9 7 ] 2 8 6 –2 9 2
colle gia t e u n iver s it y b a s ed on con sen s u s a n d t r u s t wou ld save m on ey a n d t h er efor e b e m or e efficien t a lso. Colle gia lit y is p r op os ed a s a m ea n s of in cr ea sin g cor e com p et en cies a n d n ot ju s t a s a lu xu r y in t im es of p len t y.
Th e or ga n iza tion a l ca pa city to oper a te col-lectively in h igh er edu ca tion ca n a ctu a lly be u sed to dr ive a differ en tia ted ser vice. For exa m ple wh a t wou ld com pa n ies pay for edu ca tion a n d tr a in in g if you cou ld offer th em tr u stba sed m a n a gem en t; m otiva ted m a n -power. co-oper a tive cu ltu r e a n d dem on str a te th a t it wor k s? Bla ck a n d Boa l (1994) con sider n ebu lou s, in ta n gible a ssets su ch a s tr u st a s va lu a ble str a te gic fa ctor s wh ich th ou gh pr e-ciou s a r e n ot tr a da ble. Ar r ow (1974) per ceived tr u st, goodw ill, loya lty a s econ om ic exter n a li-ties; of r ea l va lu e, wh ich in cr ea se efficien cy a n d en h a n ce com petitive a dva n ta ge bu t ca n -n ot be bou gh t. T h is is deba ta ble: th e feu da l system a n d doctr in e of sin ecu r es wer e both fi n e exa m ples of ba r ter ed loya lty a n d tr u st. Collis a n d Mon t gom er y (1995) a sk a ver y u sefu l qu est ion . Wh a t m a k es a r esou r ce va lu a ble? T h ey in t r odu ce t h e con ce pt of a ppr opr ia bilit y in t o t h e t r a dit ion a l econ om ic equ a t ion of su pply a n d dem a n d. T h e va lu e of a r esou r ce is dir ect ly r ela t ed t o it s su pply a n d it s r ela t ive dem a n d. A specia lized r esou r ce, e.g. a pr ofessor, w ill be m or e va lu a ble t h e m or e a ppr opr ia t e h e/ sh e is for a pa r t icu la r
fu n ct ion . In t h e con t ext of h igh er edu ca t ion , t ea ch in g a n d r esea r ch sk ills a r e fu n da m en -t a lly differ en -t . T h e va lu e of a n en -t er -t a in in g t ea ch er wh o ca n k eep a lect u r e h a ll of 200 st u den t s in t er est ed a n d lea r n in g is on a pa r w it h a pu blish ed r esea r ch er. Th e fi n a n cia l va lu e ca n be a ppr oxim a t ed by a ssessin g pr opor t ion s of fees or n et con t r a ct in com e a n d offset t in g for dr op-ou t r a t es, exa m in a t ion gr a des a n d ot h er m ea su r es of st u den t / clien t feedba ck . T h er e is, of cou r se, t h e da n ger t o be avoided of m ea su r in g t h e u n m ea su r a ble a n d som e edu ca t ion ist s a r gu e t h a t t h e edu ca t ion ser vice in gen er a l is n ot w ell disposed t o qu a n t it a t ive a n a lysis (McIllh a t on et a l., 1993) On t h e ot h er h a n d it wou ld be u n sou n d n ot t o m ea su r e wh a t ca n be.
If h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s a r e t o com p et e m or e a ggr essively in t h e con t r olled HE F CE m a r k et for t ea ch in g a n d r esea r ch , t h ey n eed t o h ave a ssessm en t m ech a n ism s wh ich a ccu r a t ely d et er m in e t h e a r ea s of com -p a r a t ive com -p et en ce a n d excellen ce on wh ich t o b a se su ccessfu l r esou r ce-led st r a t e gies. N eit h er sh ou ld a n excellen t r esou r ce b a se lea d t o com p la cen cy ; t h e com p et en ce m ay b e ea sily im it a t ed or su b st it u t ed by a d iffer en t r esou r ce wh ich gives a sim ila r ser v ice. So st u d en t s m ay b e ju st a s sa t isfi ed w it h a n in t er -a ct ive v id eo -a s w it h -a r en ow n ed p r ofessor. T h e r esou r ce m ay a lso b e t h e in st it u t ion ’s
r e p u t a t ion . Th is is a good exa m p le of a collec-t ive cor p or a collec-t e r esou r ce n ocollec-t b elon gin g collec-t o a n y p a r t icu la r d ep a r t m en t ; h en ce lea st lik ely t o b e d efen d ed by a n y d e p a r t m en t . It is p ossible t o a ssess t h e va lu e of t h e r esou r ce, wh et h er t a n gible or in t a n gible, by a sk in g h ow a p p r o-p r ia t e it is for t h e job it is r eq u ir ed t o d o. To u n d er p in in st it u t ion a l d ir ect ion a n d m ission for m u la t ion , r esou r ces cou ld b e su b ject ed t o t h e a ssessm en t ou t lin e sh ow n in F igu r e 1.
T h is a p p r op r ia b ilit y in d ex a sk s a b ou t t h e u sefu ln ess of t h e r esou r ce in t h e con t ext of t h e exist in g m iss ion a n d ob ject ives. Ot h er im p or t a n t r esou r ces w h ich n eed t o b e a d d ed t o t h e eq u a t ion a r e fi n a n ce a n d IE E P (in t elli-gen ce, exp er t ise, en t er p r ise a n d p r oblem solv in g) (Ta ble II). Wh ile fi n a n ce is n ot d iffi-cu lt t o m ea su r e, IE E P r eq u ir es a m or e su b jec-t ive a n a ly sis.
T h is t h en gives a m ea su r e of t h e a d eq u a cy / in a d eq u a cy of t h e r esou r ce m ix. For exa m p le, a m a t h s t u t or d eliver in g a bu sin es s com m u n i-ca t ion s m od u le w it h lect u r es fr om 7-9 a .m . in t h e ch em ist r y la b or a t or y a n d wor k s h op s fr om 1-3 p.m . in a com p u t er la b w it h on ly 286s b ein g w h olly fi n a n ced fr om t h e ca p it a l eq u ip -m en t fu n d (in t en d ed t o u p d a t e t h e 286s) n ot on ly gives a n in d ica t ion of t h e a p p r op r ia b il-it y of t h e p a ck a ge bu t a lso t h e IE E P t h a t w en t in t o p u t t in g it t oget h er !
T h e im p lica t ion s for t h is t y p e of a p p r oa ch t o a r esou r ce-b a sed a ssess m en t of a n or ga n i-za t ion ’s com p et en ce in it s in d u st r y or sect or a r e t h r eefold . F ir st , ob ject ives n eed t o b e a n d ca n b e p r ior it ized w it h t h e in for m a t ion ob t a in ed ; t h e m os t a p p r op r ia t e r esou r ces b ein g a lloca t ed t o t h e h igh est p r ior it y ob jec-t ives. Secon d , jec-t h e exjec-t en jec-t of lever a ge w ill d e p en d on t h e d e gr ee of a p p r op r ia t en ess of t h e lea st fl exible r esou r ce, e.g. ca n t h e t ea -la dy give t h e lect u r e on Goed el’s T h eor u m a t a d ay ’s n ot ice if p u sh ed ? Alt er n a t ively ca n t h e v ice-ch a n cellor or d er t h e r efr esh m en t s for t h e Ger m a n d ele ga t ion if t h e secr et a r y is a b sen t ? T h e ju xt a p os it ion of t h ese t wo im p li-ca t ion s lea d s t o a n ot h er econ om ic con ce p t ; t h a t of m a r gin a lit y. It is a t t h e m a r gin , i.e. t h e
Table II
Me as ure s o f financ e and IEEP
Finance IEEP
Availability immediately Curric ulum quality
Available soon Curric ulum originality
Needs head of sc hool Modes of assessment and
approval advic e
No funds available Level of administrative support
Available at differing rate of Log of c lient requests and
Ge raldine Clarke Re asse ssing re so urc e allo c atio n strate gie s in highe r e duc atio n: me tho ds fo r analysis
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 6 [1 9 9 7 ] 2 8 6 –2 9 2
low es t p r ior it y a n d t h e lea s t p r ogr a m m e-sp ecifi c r es ou r ce t h a t t h e ext en t of com p et i-t ive a dva n i-t a ge ca n b e m ea su r ed . T h e iss u e b ecom es on e of fl exib ilit y ver s u s sp ecia liza -t ion .
T h e t h ir d im p lica t ion is t h a t t h e d e gr ee of su ccess b ecom es a fu n ct ion of t h e fl exib ilit y of sp ecifi c r esou r ces a n d t h e exp er t is e of gen er a l r es ou r ces. In ch ess, p aw n s ca n t a k e t h e Kin g a n d t h e Qu een is t h e m os t fl exible r esou r ce on t h e b oa r d . T h is in d ica t es t h a t even w it h in a m ilit a r ist ic, offen s ive/ d efen sive p a r a d igm t h e sp ecia list / fl exib ilit y p er sp ect ive is r eleva n t , i.e. h u m a n r es ou r ce com -p et en ce a n d it s fi t w it h ot h er r es ou r ces sh ou ld u n d er p in a ll t y p es of st r a t e gic p er s p ect ive.
The mix – network factors and
services
F u r t h er wor k on cor e com p et en cies by Sn yd er a n d E b er lin g (1995) s u gges t s t h a t a
u n iver sit y sh ou ld look a t it s sy st em of a ct iv i-t ies a n d a s sess i-t h e va lu e i-t h a i-t i-t h ey a d d n oi-t on ly t o t h e p r esen t r even u e bu t t o t h e fu t u r e p ot en t ia l of t h e or ga n iza t ion . T h is is w h y r e p u t a t ion is im p or t a n t a n d w h y a lon ger -t er m v iew -t h a n -t h e p r es en -t fi ve-yea r cycle n eed s t o d r ive t h e in t er n a l a lloca t ive p r ocess.
T h e m essa ge is r e p ea t ed : su ccess d e p en d s on t h e cor r ect id en t ifi ca t ion of cor e com p e-t en ce. Ie-t is n oe-t en ou gh e-t o say e-t h e ser v ice or r e p u t a t ion is good . In st ea d a s k : for w h a t ser v ices d oes t h is in st it u t ion h ave a good r e p u t a -t ion ? Id en -t ify in d e-t a il w h a -t -t h os e ser v ices a r e, h ow t h ey a r e d eliver ed a n d h ow t h ey a r e r eceived . If t h er e is a cor e com p et en ce t o issu e d e gr ees a n d d ip lom a s, w h a t m a k es t h is on e a n y m or e d esir a ble t h a n t h e n ext ? H ow sh ou ld it s wor t h b e m ea su r ed ? Is t h e va lu e of t h e d e gr ee em p loy m en t d e p en d en t ?, i.e. d oes it h ave va lu e in t h e la b ou r m a r k et ? Does it h ave in t r in sic va lu e? Ar e st u d en t s w it h t h is d e gr ee m or e com p et en t t h a n t h e n ext ? H ow ca n t h is b e v isibly d em on s t r a t ed ?
Figure 1
Appro priability inde x: an e xample
Resources
Staff
Pro f. marke ting
Small bus ine s s c o ns ultant Le c ture r: c o mmunic atio ns Se nio r le c ture r: Co mm. Se nio r le c ture r: s trate gy
Space
Le c ture the atre Clas s ro o m Cante e n Bo ardro o m
Equipment Wo rdpro c e s s o rs Pe ntiums
Te le pho ne s / faxe s Inte rne t ac c e s s
Time 7 – 9 am 1 1 – 1 pm 5 –7 pm 9 – 1 1 pm 1 1 pm – 1 am
Very good Good Adequate Inadequate Poor Useless
* *
*
*
*
* *
* * * *
*
*
*
*
*
* Service: Inte rnatio nal Bus ine s s Co mmunic atio n Mo dule
Level: Unde rgraduate Ye ar 1 Number: 1 5 0 Full-time
Completed by: [c o uld be le c ture r, pro gramme le ade r, stude nt gro up, e tc .]
Ge raldine Clarke Re asse ssing re so urc e allo c atio n strate gie s in highe r e duc atio n: me tho ds fo r analysis
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 6 [1 9 9 7 ] 2 8 6 –2 9 2
P r ov id in g q u a lifi ca t ion s in m a n y a ca d em ic a r ea s r eq u ir es a n a n a ly sis of cor e com p et en -cies w h ich id en t ifi es t h e s y n er gies b et w een s er v ices ; s o t h a t even if on e ser v ice is n ot h igh ly p r ofi t a ble it is ea s ier t o p r ov id e b eca u se it ca n b e s ou r ced fr om t h e in p u t s t o a s er v ice w h ich is h igh ly p r ofi t a ble. For bu s i-n ess t h is is a d r a m a t ic r eii-n t er p r et a t ioi-n of a “d og”-t y p e p r od u ct / ser v ice a n d t h e op t ion t o d ivest m ay b e m ist a k en . M cAleer a n d M cH u gh (1994) con sid er t h is for u n iver s it ies w it h in t h e fr a m ewor k of M a is t er ’s m od el of t h e p r ofes s ion a l s er v ice fi r m . An ot h er s u gges t ion is n ot t o im a gin e a n en d less lis t of cor e com p et en ce a ct iv it ies. A cor p or a t ion w ill on ly h ave on e or t wo. A u n iver s it y on t h e ot h er h a n d h a s t o d ecid e fi r s t w h et h er t o p u t a ca d em ic ob ject ives b efor e com m er cia l on es, a n d h ow m u ch com m er cia l d ecis ion s a r e r eq u ir ed t o u n d er p in t h ese goa ls.
Bla ck a n d Boa l (1994) t a k e a m or e in t en s ive look a t h ow t h ese sy n er gies ca n b e id en t ifi ed . T h ey p r op ose a dy n a m ic m od el of fa ct or n et wor k s w h ich in clu d es in t er fa ct or r ela t ion -s h ip -s. A-s -set fl ow -s n eed m ea -s u r in g a -s m u ch a -s a s set st ock s. T h e su gges t ion is t h a t t h e m or e com p lex t h e in t er -r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een fa ct or s, t h e m or e d ifficu lt it is t o im it a t e a n d t h e r es ou r ce n et wor k b ecom es m or e va lu a ble. Wh er e a r es ou r ce is a sim p le fa ct or n et wor k , it m ay n ever t h eles s b e va lu a ble if it is h id d en or over look ed . On ce exp os ed it s va lu e er od es q u ick ly.
Sy st em r es ou r ces a r e id en t ifi ed a s com p lex n et wor k s w h ich a r e s ocia lly cr ea t ed . T h is is a con s t r u ct ive m ea su r e of or ga n iza t ion a l cu l-t u r e v iew ed a s a ser ies of va lu a ble s y sl-t em r esou r ces. Aga in it im p lies t h a t t h e in t er n a l con fi gu r a t ion of t h e or ga n iza t ion ca n p r ov id e va lu a ble a dva n t a ges in t h e m a r k et p la ce. Un iver sit ies h ave a lw ay s h a d a colle gia t e or ga n iza t ion a l m od el on w h ich t o b a s e t h e gr ow t h of va lu a ble socia l-fa ct or n et wor k s. Bu t Gu n n (1995) w a r n s a ga in st t h e in s id iou s im p os it ion of p a t r on a ge over p r od u ct iv it y a s t h e cr it er ion of su cces s in a colle gia t e or ga n i-za t ion .
F r om a s t r a t e gic p er sp ect ive, n ot e h a s t o b e t a k en of h ow t o m ea su r e t h es e va lu a ble r esou r ces w h en id en t ify in g a p p r op r ia t e cor e com p et en cies. An exa m p le of cor e com p e-t en cy m igh e-t b e e-t h e a b ilie-t y of e-t h e a p p lied s cien ce d e p a r t m en t t o r a is e a p ost gr a d u a t e p r ogr a m m e in a n im a l w elfa r e m a n a gem en t a n d secu r e 100 su it a ble s t u d en t s in it s fi r s t yea r. T h e es sen ce of t h a t com p et en ce wou ld b e t h e a b ilit y t o wor k t oget h er, t o b e in s p ir ed a n d t o h elp ea ch ot h er. T h e va lu e is a t t a ch ed t o t h e fi t b et w een t h e r es ou r ces, s t r a t e gy a n d t h e en v ir on m en t .
Cor e com p et en cies s h ou ld b e in t r in s ica lly fl exible a n d a ble t o s u p p or t m u lt ip le ser v ices.
Com p et en cy sh ou ld a lso r e p r esen t a u n iq u e ca p a b ilit y, n ot ea sily im it a t ed . Aga in or ga n i-za t ion a l cu lt u r e cou ld b e on e s u ch a sset . In p r a ct ica l t er m s, d ecision m a k er s n eed t o h ave t ools w h ich r eq u ir e t h em t o b e m u ch m or e sp ecifi c a b ou t t h eir m a in a ct iv it ies a n d t h e com p a r a t ive a dva n t a ge t h ey b r in g t o t h e in st it u t ion . Act iv it y -b a sed b en ch m a r k in g (p r oof t h a t t h e a ct iv it y d oes a d d va lu e) a n d em p loyee a n d a sset d ist r ibu t ion ca n b e a ccom m od a t ed in a n a p p r op r ia b ilit y in d ex. T h is t ool cou ld b e d evelop ed in con ju n ct ion w it h t h e n et wor k m a p p in g m en t ion ed a b ove. T h is wou ld a id t h e d evelop m en t a l st r u ct u r e of t h e or ga n iza t ion a s it lin k s t o it s cu r r en t wor k d em a n d s (O’N eill, 1994). In d iv id u a l a n d t ea m d evelop m en t cou ld b e a ccom m od a t ed w it h in t h e gr ea t er d iffu sion of con t r ol t o t h e op er a t in g p er ip h er y of t h e u n iver sit y a s ob ser ved by H a n dy (1989) in t h e com m er cia l m a n a gem en t en v ir on m en t a n d b ein g p u r su ed a s a m a cr o-econ om ic p olicy by cen t r a l gover n m en t (Koga n , 1988).
At t en t ion ca n b e given t o r ed efi n in g t h e cor e com p et en cies. T h is r ed efi n it ion is t h e ot h er sid e of t h e coin . Wh a t a r e clien t p er ce p -t ion s of -t h e ser v ice -t h ey r eceive? Wh o a r e -t h e u n iver sit y ’s m a in clien t s? T h e H E F CE p r o-v id es 50 p er cen t of t h e in com e t o t h e UK h igh er ed u ca t ion sect or ; a d d in g t h e r esea r ch gr a n t s gives a n ot h er 12 p er cen t a n d gover n -m en t fu n d s t h r ou gh t h e loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it ies (LE As) a fu r t h er 12 p er cen t (H E F C, 1996b ). Sh ou ld t h ey t h er efor e con cen -t r a -t e on -t h eir r ole a s a gen -t s in a p r in cip a l/ a gen t fr a m ewor k ?, i.e. sh ou ld u n iver sit ies a ct a s a gen t s for t h e gover n m en t a n d p r ov id e t h e ser v ice t h e gover n m en t r eq u ir es, i.e. t r a in in g for em p loy m en t a n d a p p lied r esea r ch t o gen er a t e n ew in d u s t r y ?
An ot h er v iew is t h a t a s in d e p en d en t in st i-t u i-t ion s, u n iver s ii-t ies sh ou ld lea d a ca d em y a n d ed u ca t ion p olicy in it ia t ives. T h ese b a sic issu es em p h a size t h e d ir ect ion in w h ich ea ch in st it u t ion w ill t r avel in t o t h e fu t u r e. If gov -er n m en t -fu n d ed st u d en t s b r in g in less in com e t h a n over s ea s st u d en t s, sh ou ld t h e la t t er b e offer ed a b et t er ser v ice? Ser v ice d iffer en t ia t ion in h igh er ed u ca t ion is on e of t h e issu es w h ich u n d er p in t h e t h ir d u n iver sa l or ga n iza t ion a l p r oces s ob ject ive – eq u it y. Mor e sp ecifi ca lly, eq u it y is a p r in cip a l for a ll p u blic-sect or in st it u t ion s w h ich h a s b een u n d er m in ed by t h e com p et it ive im p er a t ive.
Informing the strategy process in
higher education
Ge raldine Clarke Re asse ssing re so urc e allo c atio n strate gie s in highe r e duc atio n: me tho ds fo r analysis
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 6 [1 9 9 7 ] 2 8 6 –2 9 2
st r u ct u r e, sy s t em s a n d p r ocess es. T h e for m er a n d t h e la t t er a r e d ir ect ly con t r olled by execu t ive d ir ect ives. T h e or ga n iza t ion a l sy s t em , h ow ever, is t h e lin ch p in a n d if t h e t h r ee a r e n ot con gr u en t t h en s t r a t e gies ca n n ot wor k a n d ob ject ives a r e n ot a ch ieved .
If a p p r op r ia t e cor e com p et en cies a r e t o b e id en t ifi ed , t h en r es ou r ces, in t h e fi r s t p la ce, n eed t o b e a lloca t ed t o t h e t a sk . In t er n a l a u d it s a r e on e w ay of a ch iev in g a d et a iled d escr ip t ion of w h a t t h e in st it u t ion is d oin g. T h is ca n b e en h a n ced by u s in g t ools of a n a ly -s i-s -s u ch a -s t h e a p p r op r ia b ilit y in d ex a n d t h e s y s t em s -m a p p in g t ech n iq u es a s in d ica t ed . T h es e com p osit e a n a ly ses ca n u n d er p in a s t r u ct u r a l fr a m ewor k for t h e m iss ion s t a t ed , b a s ed on t h e r ecogn ized a p p r op r ia t e cor e com p et en cies. T h is d oes n ot n eces sa r ily s u p -p or t on e sin gle h ier a r ch ica l st r u ct u r e. T h er e is a ls o t h e p oss ib ilit y t h a t ea ch em er gen t s e gm en t of a ct iv it y w ill r eq u ir e it s ow n a p p r op r ia t e s t r u ct u r e. A low cost con ven t ion a l a r ea of a ct iv it y m ay r eq u ir e a m ech a -n is t ic h ier a r ch y. Sim ila r ly a d iffer e-n t ia t ed h igh -in com e s ect ion m ay r eq u ir e m or e in d i-v id u a l a u t on om y. T h is b r in gs t h e in s t it u t ion in t o t h e r ea lm s of t h e m u lt iver s it y (Liv in g-s t on e, 1974) a g-s w ell a g-s t h e p r ofeg-s g-sion a l g-s er v ice fi r m . Bu s in ess p a r a llels a r e r ecogn ized in m u lt ip u r p ose glob a l d iv ision a lized cor p or a -t ion s or in glob a l bu s in ess sy s -t em s op er a -t in g t h r ou gh n et wor k s r a t h er t h a n h ier a r ch ies.
T h e r es ou r ce-b a sed v iew (RBV) of bu s in ess clea r ly id en t ifi es t h e p ivot a l p os it ion of com p et en cies in bu ild in g com p et it ive a dva n t a ge. M or e p a r t icu la r ly, com p lex, h id d en a n d in t a n gible a ss et fl ow s w h ich ca n n ot b e ea s ily r e p lica t ed p r ov id e a n or ga n i-za t ion w it h t h e p ot en t ia l for s u cces s. T h is is t h e m os t n ot icea ble w h er e t h e a s set fl ow s a r e a p p r op r ia t e t o t h e m a r k et s t h a t t h ey op er a t e in . In h igh er ed u ca t ion , on e of t h e m os t va lu -a ble -a ss et fl ow s is sy s t em ic n et wor k s of s ocia lly cr ea t ed t ea m s of p r ofes sion a ls. T h ese a s set s a r e m a d e ava ila ble m or e r ea d ily w it h in a colle gia t e fr a m ewor k w h ich is b a s ed on p r ofes s ion a l con sen s u s. It is im p or t a n t t o id en t ify w h a t fa ct or s cr ea t e a n d d r ive a n effect ive colle gia t e s y s t em op er a t in g w it h in a com p et it ive en v ir on m en t .
T h e i m p li ca t i on for t h e p r oces s es w h i ch a r e es t a b li s h ed t o d i s s em i n a t e t h e r es ou r ces for t h e ob ject ives i n t en d ed i s a ls o a com p lex i s s u e. A lloca t i n g r es ou r ces t o p r i or i t i zed a ct iv i t i es i n t h e p r es en t a n d t h e fu t u r e i s i m p or t a n t . Wh a t p r oced u r es a r e t o b e i n s t i t u t ed for t h e a lloca t i on of r es ou r ces i s u s u -a lly on ly d i r ect ed by t h e execu t ive t o t h e d e p a r t m en t a l level. M or e n ot i ce cou ld b e t a k en of t h e p os s i b i li t y of r es ou r ci n g n et -w or k s t h r ou gh a m or e i n for m a l s t r u ct u r e. In for m a li t y d oes n ot n eces s a r i ly i m p ly
u n a ccou n t a b ilit y. Rigor ou s p r oced u r es for a ccou n t in g for exp en d it u r e a r e a lw ay s n eces-sa r y in a p u blic-sect or in st it u t ion . How ever, t h e a ccou n t in g sh ou ld give som e m ea su r e of u s e of ot h er r es ou r ces b esid es fi n a n ce a n d cou ld t h er efor e h igh ligh t over or u n d er -ca p a cit y of t h ese r es ou r ces.
Conclusion
T h is a r t icle h a s h igh ligh t ed t h e p r eoccu p a -t ion of m od er n s-t r a -t e gic -t h in k in g w i-t h r esou r ces a n d com p et en ces. It is a n a p p r oa ch w h ich ca n a id t h e b et t er a n a ly sis of t h e cor p o-r a t ion ’s a b ilit y t o com p et e su ccessfu lly. In st i-t u i-t ion s of h igh er ed u ca i-t ion a r e exp eci-t ed i-t o in cr ea se t h e com p et it ive n a t u r e of t h eir a ct iv -it ies w -it h in t h e en v ir on m en t a l fr a m ewor k w h ich d em a n d s con t in u ou s efficien cy ga in s. E fficien cy a lon e m ay su gges t t h a t su ch in st i-t u i-t ion s look m or e closely a i-t cosi-t -effeci-t ive u n iver sa l m od els of ed u ca t ion .
On t h e con t r a r y, it m ay b e t h a t a u n iver sit y ca n a ch ieve su ccess by d iffer en t ia t in g it s ser v ices on t h e b a sis of id en t ifi ed cor e com p e-t en cies w h ich a r e a p p r op r ia e-t e e-t o e-t h e d iffer en e-t m a r k et s it ser ves. As a n a id t o id en t ify in g t h ese cor e com p et en cies t wo t ech n iq u es a r e su ggest ed . Sy s t em ic n et wor k m a p p in g a n d a p p r op r ia b ilit y in d exin g of a r ea s of h igh er ed u ca t ion a ct iv it y wou ld p r ov id e a gr ea t er d e gr ee of a ccu r a cy r eq u ir ed t o in for m t h e st r a t e gic p la n n in g exer cis e. Mor e r esea r ch is r eq u ir ed t o r efi n e a n d a d a p t t h ese t ech n iq u es t o m a k e t h em a ccessible a n d t o im p r ove t h eir a p p lica b ilit y. A st u dy t o in ves t iga t e a p p lica -t ion a cr os s su b jec-t a n d a c-t iv i-t y cen -t r es in d iffer en t u n iver s it ies wou ld p r ov id e ev id en ce of va lid it y a n d r elia b ilit y. Also r esea r ch is r eq u ir ed t o id en t ify t h e p a t h w ay s by w h ich t h is in for m a t ion ca n b e u sed t o in for m t h e a lloca t ion p r oces s on a n on goin g b a s is.
Ge raldine Clarke Re asse ssing re so urc e allo c atio n strate gie s in highe r e duc atio n: me tho ds fo r analysis
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 6 [1 9 9 7 ] 2 8 6 –2 9 2
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