Reading for Radio Course

Reading for Radio Course

Pioneer Era

Radio Pioneers

Radio has grown to the point where we now easily take it for granted. We turn it on and expect it to be there. We expect that it will inform and/or entertain us. If we are not pleased with what we hear on one station we quickly turn to another one.

It hasn't always been that way. The medium had its humble beginning more than a century ago. Radio waves were first theorized in 1873 by James Clerk-Maxwell using mathematical formulas. He published a "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism." Clerk-Maxwell determined that an invisible energy that behaves like visible light must exist. That energy is what we now know to be radio waves.

Almost a decade later German physicist Henrich Hertz, whose name is still used in radio, i.e. (kHz, mHz) conducted the first experiments confirming the existence of the energy postulated by Clerk-Maxwell. Hertz was able to measure the vibration of the waves. He proved that these waves acted like light and heat waves and were susceptible to reflection and refraction. At this time there was no known use for these waves.

Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi is significant because he proved that this electromagnetic energy could be put to a practical use. That practical use was in the transmission of information. Marconi demonstrated that it was possible to manipulate the waves to send telegraphic messages. Marconi adapted the Morse code system of dots and dashes to interrupt the waves in a manner similar to the on-off configuration of existing telegraphy.

Message, sender and receiver no long had to be wired together. Messages could now be sent across water. Wireless, as it became known, allowed for ship-to-shore communication and helped advance interoceanic travel and commerce.

When the Italian government expressed no interest in Marconi's invention, he went with his British-born mother to England. Marconi's practical success was translated into commercial success. He became one of six directors and a major stockholder of a company formed to foster wireless.

When Marconi brought his invention to the United States, the Navy took a strong interest in it. Other inventors began to speculate that if these "hertzian" waves could send telegraphic messages, they could also transmit sound.

On Dec. 24, 1906, Fessenden used the 50,000-hertz alternator that he and Alexanderson had built to transmit sound from Brant Rock, Massachusetts. Fessenden broadcast a Christmas Eve

program that startled teletype operators as far away as Norfolk, Va. Fessenden played the violin, a phonograph of Handel's "Largo", read from the Bible, wished everyone a Merry Christmas and promised to broadcast again on New Year's Eve.

Other radio experimenters include: Thomas E. Clark in Detroit and Charles D. "Doc" Herrold in San Jose, California. Both were operating before 1910, Herrold opened the Herrold College of Wireless and Engineering in San Jose. He and his students provided a weekly schedule of programs and went door-to-door with receivers they had made to generate a listening audience. Herrold and his students experimented with many of the formats still in use today. Herrold's operation ended in 1917, when all non-government broadcasting was ordered off the air with the start of World War I. Herrold's attempts to revive the station after the war were largely

unsuccessful. The station was later moved to San Francisco and became KCBS. Herrold is often referred to as "Broadcasting's Forgotten Father."

Active during this period was inventor Lee De Forest. De Forest is credited with the invention of the audion tube (later called the vacuum tube), a device used to amplify weak radio signals.

In addition to his work as an inventor, De Forest was also an early broadcaster. He presented programs to early experimenters fascinated with the novelty of receiving programs out of the air.

Edwin Howard Armstrong was one of De Forest's major rivals. Major Armstrong, the "Father of FM" is credited with improving on many of De Forest's inventions. Armstrong invented the Regenerative Circuit and the Superheterodyne Circuit, which vastly improved radio. He also offered a series of experimental broadcasts. It was Armstrong's idea to begin using a speaker to listen to the radio. Early radio listening was done with "headsets."

During this period, radio was a curious experiment. It was David Sarnoff who in 1915 began to identify radio's commercial potential. He began to see the possibility of "radio music boxes" in every American home. He still saw radio as an appliance, little more than "talking furniture." Sarnoff said, "The main revenue to be derived will be from the sale of the 'Radio Music Boxes', which if manufactured in lots of one hundred thousand or so could yield a handsome profit."

When Sarnoff headed the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) he put his plan to sell "Radio Music Boxes" into action. Broadcasting was set to become a major part of American life.

In 1920 KDKA Pittsburgh came on the air. It holds the much-disputed title of "First Station On The Air"

Westinghouse would manufacture and supply the receivers, Horne's Department Store would sell the receivers for $10. Westinghouse also applied to the U.S. Department of Commerce for a license and received the call sign KDKA on November 2, 1920. The station broadcast the presidential election in which Warren G. Harding defeated James M. Cox. The concept of the commercial radio station had been born.

KDKA is credited as the oldest station in the country because it was the first to do several things simultaneously. 1. It was the first to receive a commercial license. 2. Conrad borrowed music from a Wilkinsburg music store in exchange for mentioning the store on the air. 3. KDKA broadcast a regular schedule. 4. The station's partnership with Horne's Department Store put receivers into the hands of the listening audience.

Because of these factors KDKA is said to have fostered the notion of "radio as a mass medium" (one to many).

Commercial at this time meant that KDKA and other pioneer stations were licensed by the US Department of Commerce. Advertising still hadn't found it's way onto the airwaves.

Westinghouse established another radio station, WJZ in Newark, New Jersey, to serve the New York area. Entertainment personalities were soon flocking to radio.

During this period, department stores, newspapers, colleges and universities and religious

organizations scrambled to set up radio stations. There was some notion of using the medium for educational purposes but at the time the real fascination was with radio itself. Most owners were content with the goodwill and publicity generated for their organizations.

AT&T was the first to realize the commercial potential of the new medium. In 1922, the telephone company opened its broadcast facility, WEAF in New York, to paying customers. These customers could use the facility for whatever they wished to put on the air. The concept was known as toll broadcasting.

AT&T soon recognized a flaw in the toll broadcasting concept. Without an audience, no one was willing to pay to use WEAF. Without programming, no audience was willing to listen to WEAF. AT&T decided to supply a certain amount of programming to generate an audience and, as a result, willing clients. WEAF was soon thriving. Radio's first commercial was for an apartment in the Jackson Heights section of Queens.

The concept of toll broadcasting became an instant success. It lead to the broader use of radio as an advertising medium.

References

Greenfield, T. A. (1989). Radio: A reference guide. Greenwood Press: Westport, CT.

O'Donnell, L., Hausman, C. Benoit, P. (1989). Radio station operations: management and employee perspectives. Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

Chapter Resource Links

 The Broadcast Archive

 Radio's Roots

 Antique Radio

 The Inventor of FM

 Edwin Howard Armstrong

 Broadcast FAQs

 Early Stations in San Francisco

 The First Hundred Stations

 US Pioneer Broadcast Service Stations

 Original Old-time Radio

 Jeff Miller's Broadcasting History Collection

 United States Early Broadcast History

 Boston Radio Archives

 Museum of Television and Radio.

Early Radio

Soon after KDKA began operating, early radio operators realized that they could easily

interconnect stations. The concept of interconnecting stations began when the owner of WMAF in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts persuaded AT&T's WEAF, New York to supply it with programming. WMAF paid a fee for unsponsored programs. Sponsored programs were free. That same year (1922). WJZ licensed to Newark, New Jersey (now WABC New York) linked up with WGY in Schnectady to broadcast the 1922 World Series. In 1923 WEAF, teamed with WNAC in Boston to transmit a football game that was played in Chicago.

From this early beginning AT&T began developing what became know as chain broadcasting. This practice of interconnecting radio stations soon lead to the development of networks. By 1924, it was possible to broadcast from coast to coast over a chain of 26 radio stations.

AT&T for obvious reasons took the lead in developing chain broadcasting. The telephone company had also taken the lead with its development of toll broadcasting and by 1925 was turning a profit of $150,000. The telephone company's broadcasting operations, however, were proving to be costly.

General Electric, (GE), The Radio Corporation of America (RCA), & Westinghouse joined forces to develop a network of interconnected radio stations. The network know as NBC was formed in 1926. By 1927 the new company was operating two networks, the red and the blue. The NBC Blue network was sold in 1943. It became ABC in 1945. NBC also purchased WEAF from AT&T and operated the station as the network flagship. (The station became WNBC. It is now WFAN).

Radio developed quickly during the 1920s. KDKA received a license from the Commerce Department in 1920. AT&T developed the concept of toll broadcasting in 1922. That same year, WEAF and WMAF, followed by WJZ and WGY, began the concept of chain broadcasting. By 1924 it was possible to broadcast from coast to coast over 26 interconnected stations. AT&T's broadcast facilities were making annual profits of $150,00 by 1925. RCA, GE and Westinghouse joined forces to start NBC in 1926. By the end of the decade (1929) CBS became the second network.

Early Advertising:

"Potted Palms"

Early visionaries saw radio as a way to bring so-called "High Culture" into the American home. Yet, the device had a knack for accelerating mass culture. Critics saw advertising as a

compromise to radio's potential as a cultural force. Many even lobbied for laws prohibiting the use of the medium for advertising messages.

As a result, station owners approached advertising cautiously. Early presentation on radio emphasized high culture even if the programs did not. Announcers and performers wore tuxedos and gowns. Studios were elaborately furnished. Microphones were hidden in lampshades and potted plants. The era is jokingly referred to as the "potted palm" era of broadcasting.

Radio's ability to reach into the home gave reason for early programmers to be cautious. Things of common concern included: Is tooth brushing too personal a function to mention on the radio? Is it safe to mention the price of a product?

This early caution lead to an interesting adaptation. Shows and performers were named after the program sponsors. Among the more famous were the Gold Dust Twins, Goldy and Dusty, who advertised Gold Dust laundry detergent. The Happiness Boys for Happiness Candy Stores, The Interwoven Pair for Interwoven Socks, the Clicquot Club Eskimos for Clicquot Club soft drinks and the Taystee Loafers for Taystee bread. All of those characters were performed by popular singing duo Jones and Hare.

Sales pitches eventually were relaxed and became more common. Listeners soon grew

accustomed to the idea of commercials on the air. Many of these commercials became familiar parts of the program and allowed programmers to exercise a degree of creativity.

Radio's Golden Age

Radio's so-called "Golden Age" was very short. It lasted from 1926, the year that NBC was formed, until 1949, the year after television's revenues surpassed radio's and the older medium's revenues declined for the first time.

During the "Golden Age" radio was a mass entertainment medium. Early programs were much like what we see on TV today, including: situation comedies, musical variety, drama, soap operas, and game shows. Popular network / shows included: the Shadow, (Who know what evil lurks within the hearts of men.) the Green Hornet, Mr. Keen: Tracer of Lost Persons, Gang Busters, Sergeant Preston of the Yukon and Jack Armstrong: The All American Boy, which was brought to you each week by Wheaties.

The most popular of the network shows, Amos 'N' Andy was built upon a racial stereotype. The show began as Sam 'N' Henry on WGN Chicago. It moved to WMAQ in 1928 and became Amos 'N' Andy. Two white men, Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll, created and played the roles of two black men who operated the "Fresh Air Taxi Company." Their $100,000-a-year salaries, paid by NBC, made them the highest paid radio entertainers at the time. The program was so popular that theater owners would not schedule their films and performances during the time the show aired on Tuesday evenings.

Early Radio News

Information was also important in early radio. News at early radio stations was often no more than reading newspaper stories on the air. Broadcasters soon figured that if they had access to the wire services, they could develop their own news departments. At first, newspapers tried to limit radio's access to the wire services. This was successful until United Press International (UPI) broke ranks in 1935 and began serving radio stations. Newspapers soon found that radio helped sales. People wanted to read in-depth what they had heard about on the radio.

During the Depression, radio began to assert itself as an information medium. On March 12, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt began his series of fireside chats. He saw radio as a way to reach the masses and calm their worries during the economic downturn. Roosevelt also set wheels in motion to create a government agency to regulate the new medium. The

Communications Act of 1934 established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

Radio soon began demonstrating its ability to take listeners to the scene of what was happening. One of the most dramatic examples was when listeners tuned in May 6, 1937, instead of hearing about the routine arrival of the Hindenburg a dirigible from Germany. They heard instead a play-by-play description of the dirigible's crash in Lakehurst, NJ.

Through Murrow and the other war correspondents Americans became familiar with the voices of the principal European leaders: Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain, and Churchill. By the time Pearl Harbor was bombed on Dec. 7, 1941 by the Japanese, U.S. public opinion was in favor of the nation going to war.

Radio carried the war action from Europe and the Pacific into American homes. The names Larry Lesuer, Charles Collingwood and Eric Sevareid became familiar to radio listeners. Radio reporters landed along with the troops on the beaches of Normandy on D-day and covered the war throughout Europe. On the Pacific front, radio reporters island hopped with the troops. Americans were informed of everything from MacArthur's return to the Philippines to the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The war correspondents developed a gathering and reporting style that took advantage or radio's immediacy. It is a style common to radio and television reporting today. CBS became the model for network news reporting. By the late 1940s and into the early 1950s, radio was fully

developed as a news medium.

W.W.II stunted television's growth. Development on television, which had been demonstrated as early as the 1920s, and was a hit at the 1936 World's Fair, was delayed by the war effort.

After the war, TV sets became available commercially in 1946. In just two short years,

television's revenues surpassed radio's. Radio's revenues declined in 1949. this marked the end of radio's "Golden Age."

The programs that worked well on radio worked even better on television. Soon stars and shows such as Jack Benny, Milton Berle and Our Miss Brooks were redesigning themselves for the visual medium. The last of the network shows to leave radio were Ma Perkins a soap opera with a loyal radio following into the 1960s and Don McNeill's Breakfast Club a variety/talk show that was network radio's longest running program, 1933 - 1968.

Class note: The Breakfast Club is indirectly responsible for your instructor's interest in radio. As a child he took the family's kitchen table radio apart looking for the little people who sing and make the music. Don MacNeil's Breakfast Club heard on WKIP 1450AM Poughkeepsie, NY, was on the air at the time.

References

Greenfield, T. A. (1989). Radio: A reference guide. Greenwood Press: Westport, CT.

Keith, M. C. and Krause, J. M. (1989). The Radio Station Focal Press: Boston.

O'Donnell, L., Hausman, C. Benoit, P. (1989). Radio station operations: management and employee perspectives. Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

Chapter Resource Links

 Amos 'n' Andy

 Radio Yester Year

 Breakfast Club

 Broadcast FAQs

 Original Old-Time Radio

 Museum of Television & Radio

 War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast

 Journal of Radio Studies

 Library of American Broadcasting

 Old Time Radio

 OTR Sound Snippets

 Radio Days

 Radio Days - Edward R. Murrow

 Radio Days - News

 Pictures of Murrow

 Edward R Murrow Information

 Radio Days - Hindenberg

 Radio Memories

 Nostalgia Pages



Broadcasting: Basic Concepts

 In order to program a radio station it is important to understand some basic concepts. A programmer may develop an excellent music format only to have it crippled by being placed on an AM station.

 Transmission

 Radio transmission is a way of sending messages using radio wave propagation. Before that can happen sound information must be converted into electrical form so that it can be transmitted using electromagnetic energy. The process of turning sound into this form so that it can be transmitted is called transduction.

 This involves two steps. First, sound is converted (encoded) into an electrical pattern. Second, the electrical signal travels through a channel that allows the encoded sound to reach a transmission point (transmitter) and then on to a reception point (receiver).

 Devises such as CD players, microphones, turntables, and tape recorders (transducers) transform sound from a series of physical vibrations into electrical energy that can then be transmitted. We can imagine electromagnetic energy which includes visible light, infrared radiation and X rays, on a scale from low to high. This energy behaves like light and travels through space at 186,000 miles per second, or 300 million meters per second.

 In addition to frequency, radio waves also have amplitude. Amplitude describes the height or intensity of a given wave. The ability to manipulate variations in amplitude and frequency makes possible the transmission of sound.



Types of Stations

 Two transmission methods (systems of modulation) used are used. AM amplitude modulation varies the amplitude (intensity) of the carrier, while the frequency remains the same. FM encodes the sound information by changing the frequency, while the amplitude remains constant.

 Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. AM is the older of the two

transmission systems. FM, the newer system, is now the dominant band. It accounts for more than 75% of radio listeners.

 AM's advantage is that it travels great distances, particularly at night via skywave. Its disadvantage is that it has limited frequency response. AM radio is restricted to 10 kilohertz. This limitation gives it less than the full-range of frequencies needed for ideal fidelity. AM stations are restricted from producing sound above 5,000 cycles per second. This results in a loss of the overtones that provide the richness and warmth that give fullness to sound. This further disadvantages AM stations by reducing their dynamic range, the difference in volume from soft to loud sound.

 Because AM transmission varies the amplitude of the wave, it is more susceptible to interference. AM stations broadcast using medium frequency (MF) waves. Music has almost disappeared from AM radio. Successful formats include: News, Talk, (Full Service) and Sports.

 To the average listener, FM's obvious advantage is stereo. In FM stereo, the right and left channels are transmitted on separate subcarriers. Stereo receivers detect both signals and reproduce right and left channels. The mono signal (combined left and right) leaves the transmitter as a single signal. In addition to stereo, FM benefits from having a wider bandwidth than AM, 200 kilohertz vs 10 kilohertz. This wider bandwidth give FM a frequency response that extends from below 10 Hertz to 15,000 Hertz. As a result the listener hears a truer representation of sound. Most music formats are now heard on FM. Talk and news, formats popular on AM are also heard on FM. WWBD FM, (formerly talk, now '80s format "The Point") Philadelphia and WTOP FM, (news) Washington, DC (WNEW, New York former Rock 'n' Roll Powerhouse is now a talk station as is KLSX in Los Angeles) are examples.

 One of FM's other major advantages is a built in resistance to interference. Unlike AM, FM transmission varies the frequency of the signal keeping the amplitude constant. Static interacts with the amplitude of radio waves. This results, in FM being relatively

interference free (see No Static At All provided by WCRB FM, Boston.

 Diagrams

 FM does have disadvantages with respect to AM. It occupies the VHF band. Signals at these higher frequencies attenuate quickly and travel line-of-sight, no further than the horizon.

 FM signals are also prone to multipath interference. This happens when a bounced signal interacts with the original signal inside your receiver.

 One of the most important things to learn about radio is that not all stations are created equal. According to radio consultant Jay Williams, Jr. "Generally speaking when two stations offer the same format in a like manner that is, comparative execution and performance levels the outlet with the strongest and clearest signal will nearly always garner the largest following" (Keith, 1987).

 AM Stations

 AM stations are those broadcast stations that occupy the portion of the broadcast spectrum between 535khz - 1705khz.

 Classes of AM Stations

 §73.21 Classes of AM broadcast channels and stations.

 (a) Clear channel. A clear channel is one on which stations are assigned to serve wide areas. These stations are protected from objectionable interference within their primary service areas and, depending on the class of station, their secondary service areas. Stations operating on these channels are classified as follows:

 (1) Class A station. A Class A station is an unlimited time station that operates on a clear channel and is designed to render primary and secondary service over an extended area and at relatively long distances from its transmitter. Its primary service area is protected from objectionable interference from other stations on the same and adjacent channels, and its secondary service area is protected from interference from other stations on the same channel. The operating power shall not be less than 10kw nor more than 50 kW.

 (2) Class B station. A class B station is an unlimited time station which is designed to render service only over a primary service area Class B stations are authorized to operate with a minimum power of 0.25kw (or, if less than 0.25kw, an equivalent RMS antenna field of at least 141 mV/m at 1 km) and a maximum power of 50kw, or 10kw for stations that are authorized to operate in the 1605-1705kHz band.

 (3) Class D station. A class D station operates either daytime, limited time or unlimited time with nighttime power less than 0.25kw (or, if less than 0.25kw and an equivalent RMS antenna field of less than 141 mV/m at one km. Class D stations shall operate with daytime powers not less than 0.25kw nor more than 50kw. Nighttime operations of Class D stations are not afforded protection and must protect all Class A and Class B operations during nighttime hours. New Class D stations that had not been previously licensed as Class B will not be authorized.

 (b) Regional Channel. A regional channel is one on which Class B and Class D stations may operate and serve principal center of population and the rural area contiguous thereto.

 (c) Local channel. A local channel is one on which stations operate unlimited time and serve primarily a community and the suburban and rural areas immediately contiguous thereto.

 (1) Class C station. A Class C station is a station operating on a local channel and is designed to render service only over a primary service area that may be reduced as a consequence of interference in accordance with §73.182. The power shall not be less than 0.25kw, nor more than 1kw. Class C stations that are licensed to operate with 0.1kw may continue to do so.

 The frequencies in the following tabulations are designated as clear channels and assigned for use by the classes of stations given:

 (a) On each of the following channels, one Class A station may be assigned, operating with power of 50kw; 640, 650, 660, 670, 700, 720, 750, 760, 770, 780, 820, 830, 840, 870, 880, 890, 1020, 1030, 1040, 1100, 1120, 1160, 1180, 1200 and 1210 kHz. In Alaska, these frequencies can be used by class A stations subject to the conditions set forth in §73.182(a)(1)(ii). On the channels listed in this paragraph, Class B and Class D stations may be assigned.

 (b) to each of the following channels there may be assigned Class A, Class B and Class D stations: 680, 710, 810, 850, 940, 1000, 1060, 1070, 1080, 1090, 1110, 1130, 1140, 1170, 1190, 1500, 1520, 1530, 1540, 1550 and 1560 kHz.

 (c) Class A, Class B and Class D stations may be assigned on 540, 690, 730, 740, 800, 860, 900, 990, 110, 1050, 1220, 1540, 1570 and 1580 kHz.

 §73.26 Regional channels: Class B and Class D stations.

 (a) the following frequencies are designated as regional channels and are assigned for use by Class B and Class D stations: 550, 560, 570, 580, 590, 600, 610, 620, 630, 790, 910, 920, 930, 950, 960, 970, 980, 1150, 1250, 1260, 1270, 1280, 1290, 1300, 1310, 1320, 1330, 1350, 1360, 1370, 1380, 1390, 1410, 1420, 1430, 1440, 1460, 1470, 1480, 1590, 1600, 1610, 1620, 1630, 1640, 1650, 1660, 1670, 1680, 1690 and 1700 kHz.

 (b) Additionally, in Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands the frequencies 1230, 1240, 1340, 1400, 1450 and 1490 kHz are designated as Regional channels, and are assigned for use by class B stations. Stations formerly licensed to these channels in those locations class C stations are redesignated as Class B stations.

 §73.27 Local channels; Class C stations.

 Within the conterminous 48 states, the following frequencies are designated as local channels, and are assigned for use by class C stations: 1230, 1240, 1340, 1400, 1450 and 1490 kHz.

 §73.201 Numerical designation of FM broadcast channels.

 The FM broadcast band consists of that portion of the radio frequency spectrum between 88 megacycles per second (MHz) and 108 MHz. It is divided into 100 channels of 200 kHz each. For convenience, the frequencies available for FM broadcasting (including those assigned to noncommercial educational broadcasting) are given numerical designations which are shown in the table below:

89.7 MHz 209 99.7 MHz 259

89.9 MHz 210 99.9 MHz 260

90.1 MHz 211 100.1 MHz 261

90.3 MHz 212 100.3 MHz 262

90.5 MHz 213 100.5 MHz 263

90.7 MHz 214 100.7 MHz 264

90.9 MHz 215 100.9 MHz 265

91.1 MHz 216 101.1 MHz 266

91.3 MHz 217 101.3 MHz 267

91.5 MHz 218 101.5 MHz 268

91.7 MHz 219 101.7 MHz 269

91.9 MHz 220 101.9 MHz 270

92.1 MHz 221 102.1 MHz 271

92.3 MHz 222 102.3 MHz 272

92.5 MHz 223 102.5 MHz 273

92.7 MHz 224 102.7 MHz 274

92.9 MHz 225 102.9 MHz 275

93.1 MHz 226 103.1 MHz 276

93.3 MHz 227 103.3 MHz 277

93.5 MHz 228 103.5 MHz 278

93.7 MHz 229 103.7 MHz 279

93.9 MHz 230 103.9 MHz 280

94.1 MHz 231 104.1 MHz 281

94.3 MHz 232 104.3 MHz 282

94.5 MHz 233 104.5 MHz 283

94.7 MHz 234 104.7 MHz 284

94.9 MHz 235 104.9 MHz 285

95.1 MHz 236 105.1 MHz 286

95.3 MHz 237 105.3 MHz 287

95.5 MHz 238 105.5 MHz 288

95.7 MHz 239 105.7 MHz 289

95.9 MHz 240 105.9 MHz 290

96.1 MHz 241 106.1 MHz 291

96.3 MHz 242 106.3 MHz 292

96.5 MHz 243 106.5 MHz 293

96.7 MHz 244 106.7 MHz 294

96.9 MHz 245 106.9 MHz 295

97.1 MHz 246 107.1 MHz 296

97.3 MHz 247 107.3 MHz 297

97.5 MHz 248 107.5 MHz 298

97.7 MHz 249 107.7 MHz 299

 §73.205 Zones.

 For the purpose of allotments and assignments, the United States is divided into three zones as follows:

 (a) Zone 1 consists of the portion of the United States located within the confines of the following lines drawn on the United States Alberts Equal area Projection Map (based on the standard parallels 29 1/2 and 45 1/2; North American datum); Beginning at the most easterly point on the State boundary line located at North Latitude 3749' and West

Longitude 80 12' 30"; thence westerly along the southern boundary line lines of the States of West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois to a point at the junction of the Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri state boundary lines; thence northerly along the western boundary line of the State of Illinois to a point at the junction of the Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin state boundary lines; thence easterly along the northern state boundary line of Illinois to the 90th meridian; thence north along this meridian to the 43.5-parallel; thence east along the parallel to the United states-Canada border; thence southerly and following that border until it again intersects the 43.5 parallel; thence east along this parallel to the 71st meridian; thence in a straight line to the intersection of the 69th meridian and the 45th-parallel; thence east along the 45th parallel to the Atlantic Ocean. When any of the above lines pass through a city, the city shall be considered located in Zone 1. (See Figure of §73.699 [in complete copy of the rules]).

 (b) Zone 1A consists of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and that portion of the State of California which is located south of the 40th parallel.

 (c) Zone II consists of Alaska, Hawaii and the rest of the United States which is not located in either Zone I or Zone IA.

 §73.210 Station classes.

 (a) The rules applicable to a particular station, including minimum and maximum facilities requirements are determined by its class. Possible class designations depend upon the zone in which the station's transmitter is located. The zones are defined in §73.205. Allotted station classes are indicated in the Table of Allotments, §73.202. Class A, B1 and B stations may be authorized in Zones I and I-A. Class A, C3, C2, C1 and C stations may be authorized in Zone II.

 §73.211 Power and antenna height requirements.

 (a) Minimum requirements.

 (1) Except as provided in paragraphs (a)(3) and (b)(2) of this section, FM stations must operate with a minimum effective Radiated power (ERP) as follows:

 (i) The minimum ERP for Class A stations is 0.1kw (ii) The ERP for Class B1 stations must exceed 6kw. (iii) The ERP for Class B stations must exceed 25kw (iv) The ERP for Class C3 stations must exceed 6kw. (v) The ERP for Class C2 stations must exceed 25kw. (vi) The ERP for Class C1 stations is 100kw.

(vii) The minimum ERP for Class C stations is 100kw.

Station Class Maximum ERP HAAT Contour (meters) (feet)

A 6kw (7.8 dBk) 100 (328) 28

B1 25kw (14.0 dBk) 100 (328) 39

B 50kw (17.0 dBk) 150 (492) 52

C3 25kw (14.0 dBk) 100 (328) 39

C2 50kw (17.0 dBk) 150 (492) 52

C1 100kw 20.0 dBk) 299 (981) 72

C 100kw 20.0 dBk) 600 (1968) 92



References

 Keith, M. C. (1987). Radio programming: Consultancy and Formatics Focal Press: Boston.

 O'Donnell, L. M., Hausman, C., Benoit, P. (1989). Radio station operations: Management and employee perspectives. Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

 Keith, M. C. and Krause, J. M. (1989). The Radio Station Focal Press: Boston.

 Broadcasting and Cable Yearbook 1997 (1997). R.R. Bowker: New Providence, NJ.

 Federal Communications Commission Rules Part 73 (1997). Rules Service Company: Rockville, MD.



Chapter Resource Links

  Chart of electromagnetic energy.

  Figure single cycle.

  AM wave.

  FM wave.

  Figure skywave & ground wave.

  Figure line-of-sight.

  FigureZone1.

  WWBD FM Talk radio on FM.

  WTOP FM News radio on FM.

  No Static At All provided by WCRB FM, Boston.

  WMBR at MIT list of radio stations on the World Wide Web.

  Gebbie Press Radio on the Web

  BRS Radio Directory

  Airwaves Journal The radio watcher project.

  FCC Homepage

  FCC AM factsheet.

  AM Stereo FCC explanation of AM stereo.

  The Basics of AM Radio presented by Radio World.

  FCC FM factsheet.

  FCC Conversion converts channel number to FM frequency.

  FCC Contours contours for FM station classes.

  National Association of Broadcasters

  Rec.Radio.Broadcasting Usenet newsgroup.

  Journal of Radio Studies

  DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting

  Eureka 147 DAB

  In-Band On-Channel DAB

  Lucent Digital Radio

  USA Digital Radio

SEC. 202. BROADCAST OWNERSHIP.

(a) NATIONAL RADIO STATION OWNERSHIP RULE CHANGES REQUIRED-The Commission shall modify section 73.3555 of its regulations (47 C.F.R. 73.3555) by eliminating any provisions limiting the number of AM or FM broadcast stations which may be owned or controlled by one entity nationally.

(b) LOCAL RADIO

DIVERSITY-(1) APPLICABLE CAPS- The Commission shall revise section 73.3555(a) of its regulations (47 C.F.R. 73.3555) to provide

that--(A) in a radio market with 45 or more commercial radio stations, a party may own, operate, or control up to 8 commercial radio stations, not more than 5 of which are in the same service (AM or FM);

(B) in a radio market with between 30 and 44 (inclusive) commercial radio stations, a party may own, operate, or control up to 7 commercial radio stations, not more than 4 of which are in the same service (AM or FM);

(C) in a radio market with between 15 and 29 (inclusive) commercial radio stations, a party may own, operate, or control up to 6 commercial radio stations, not more than 4 of which are in the same service (AM or FM); and

(D) in a radio market with 14 or fewer commercial radio stations, a party may own, operate, or control up to 5 commercial radio stations, not more than 3 of which are in the same service (AM or FM), except that a party may not own, operate, or control more than 50 percent of the stations in such market.

(2) EXCEPTION- Notwithstanding any limitation authorized by this subsection, the Commission may permit a person or entity to own, operate, or control, or have a cognizable interest in, radio broadcast stations if the Commission determines that such ownership, operation, control, or interest will result in an increase in the number of radio broadcast stations in operation.

Minority ownership in media shrinks

Tribune Media Writer The economic model was established more than 30 years ago, when chain stores and shopping malls sprouted from cheap land on the outskirts of small towns and

methodically squeezed the commercial life out of many of the little storefronts downtown.

Now the Wal-Martizing of radio and television means one of the original mom-and-pop businesses--owning a commercial radio or TV station--is falling victim to that corporate ethos, too. But the stunning pace of consolidation in broadcasting raises troubling philosophical questions because of its particular impact on individual and minority ownership.

Although minority ownership has always been low, it now stands at 2.8 percent of the nation's 11,475 commercial radio and TV stations, according to the Commerce Department. That's down from 3.1 percent in 1996.

``The decline is troubling because historically there has been bipartisan support in this country for the notion that it is important to have a diversity of ownership in our broadcast stations because it is good for the public and good for democracy,'' Federal Communications Commission Chairman William Kennard said in an interview.

But Kennard, the first black person to chair the government's chief communications regulatory panel, asserts that, at heart, the changes in minority ownership transcend race and paint a much wider picture of what is going on in all of broadcasting.

``This is as much an issue about small business as it is about minorities. There is a whole echelon of small businesses that don't have opportunities in this business like they used to,'' he said.

It is not at all clear what, if anything, can be done to reverse the trend that is dramatically altering the industry founded by local entrepreneurs and built on community service. The diversity of voices is eroding, especially in black-owned radio, where the biggest ownership drops have occurred.

And usually cash-strapped small owners--regardless of race--face enormous obstacles to not only enter but to stay in a business increasingly being taken over by deep-pocketed conglomerates. In short, the small operators are being priced out.

``In all candor, it would be virtually impossible to get in today. I know we could not re-create our company today,'' said Don Cornwell, chairman and chief executive officer of New York-based Granite Broadcasting Corp., which owns and operates 11 network affiliated television stations in nine states, including Illinois.

Cornwell is black and is the dominant player among the nation's 12 black television station owners. Last month, Granite announced it will buy KOFY-TV in San Francisco for $174 million.

That spurred a buying binge--what John Douglas, president of Douglas Broadcasting, of Palo Alto, Calif., calls ``a stampede.''

``It's like barbarians at the gate. The fuel that is the catalyst is money. If you have money you can participate, but money is something that minorities typically do not have access to in large amounts,'' said Douglas, a black man whose company owns 19 major market radio stations in six states and the District of Columbia.

``The possibilities are getting smaller and smaller,'' Douglas said. Since March 1996, nearly 3,900 radio stations--roughly 40 percent of the total--have changed hands in deals totaling more than $30.1 billion. The percentage of television station transactions is similar--384 deals, exceeding $16.5 billion.

Before and after comparisons are revealing. In 1995, prior to last year's broadcast deregulation, CBS bought a black-owned UHF television station in Detroit, WGPR-TV, for $24 million. Last December, 10 months after deregulation, Granite bought WXON-TV, another UHF station in the Detroit market, for $175 million.

In radio, the multibillion-dollar consolidation spree has created radio giants--Capstar

Broadcasting, Clear Channel Communications, Chancellor Broadcasting, Jacor Communications and Westinghouse--owning more than 100 and, in some cases, many hundreds of radio stations. Government regulations allow a single owner to control as many as eight radio stations in a market.

That has given the big operators some major competitive advantages: They can consolidate business operations of stations they own; they can control certain listening formats in a market, such as urban contemporary or country, and--most important--they can control 50 percent or more of the radio advertising in the market. This means they can operate more efficiently and profitably than a single radio station operator.

Since overall national ownership limits in radio have been lifted, it is conceivable that a single owner could own, say, 2,000 stations. Also possible is the vision weaved by some analysts, that four or five big corporate owners will control the overwhelming majority of the nation's radio stations.

The message from all this to many individual operators is simple: Take the money and run, or be crushed. ``A lot of times the economics dictate that you sell out,'' said Larry Irving, assistant secretary of the Commerce Department.

``Group owners are the name of the game now. Radio has historically been diverse and local, and increasingly it is becoming neither,'' Irving said.

ownership rules. The broadcast lobby is pushing for the right to own more than one TV station in a single market.

The government has sponsored an effort to make seed money available for small businesses to enter radio. But the treasury is a pittance, only $25 million.

The FCC's Kennard said the commission will study the fallout from radio deregulation, which he said was much greater than anyone anticipated. ``It's easy to say that consolidation is the

problem, and I suspect that is the case, but it would be irresponsible not to look deeper and try to understand a little bit better why financing sources are drying up for smaller new entrants,'' Kennard said.

``I think that many people in this country will wake up to the fact that the broadcast industry is fundamentally changing,'' he said, adding that it is ``imperative'' for the government to try to reverse the trend of shrinking broadcast opportunities.

Douglas is not optimistic. ``I'm a former securities analyst, and I could see the handwriting on the wall. `He who can collect the most marbles will win, especially the pretty ones,' '' Douglas said.

Copyright Chicago Tribune (c) 1997

Basic Format Elements

There are certain elements that are common to all formats. These can be thought of as building blocks. Programmers blend different types and amounts of music, news, public affairs, features, public service announcements, commercials, contests, promotions, jingles, and announcing styles to attract audiences. This combination of elements is called a format. Different formats and different combinations of elements within formats attract different audiences. Each of those building blocks is vital in its own way.

Music

Music is perhaps the most obvious and most important part of any format, with the exception of news, talk and sports. Even with these formats music plays an important part of helping the station establish an identity. More goes into programming music than the average listener suspects. Program Directors, Consultants and Music Directors don’t just grab a stack of a particular type of CDs and play them randomly throughout the day. Programmers analyze trade magazines such as Billboard and Radio and Records, they perform auditorium tests and run focus groups before adding selections to their playlists.

Codification

day, while softer slow tempo songs are favored during the evening hours. Mid-tempo songs may be played throughout the day to give a station’s sound balance. For example it’s not uncommon for an Adult Contemporary station to feature songs which sound nearly Top 40 during the day and feature “loves songs” during evening hours.

Programmers use various categories when building a coding scheme. For example tempo might be one category, arrangement might be another. These categories are assigned codes. An

uptempo song may be coded with a “U” while a slow song will receive an “S”. Likewise, a song with a single instrument such as a guitar might receive a “1” while one with a full orchestra will receive a “3”.

Songs are often further coded according to gender of the artist, and lyrical mood. A bluesy lyric might receive a “B” while a cheerful lyric would receive a “C”. An “M” or an “F” would be used to designate the artist’s gender or perhaps a “D” for a male/female duet.

Thus a fully orchestrated uptempo song performed by a female artist with a cheerful lyric might be coded U/3/C/F . The “U” represents the tempo. In this case it is uptempo The “3” represents the degree of orchestration. In this case it is full orchestra. The “C” represents lyrical mood. In this case cheerful. The “F” represents the artist’s gender, female.

Likewise a blues song performed by a male guitarist might receive a code of S/1/B/M. In this case the “S” represents slow tempo; the “1” represents single instrument; the “B” represents bluesy lyric and the “M” represents the performer’s gender, male.

Once the programmer determines codes, he/she is ready to put the selections into rotation.

Rotation

Rotation is used to establish a hierarchy by which programmers determine when and how often selections will be played on the station. The goal is to play popular songs frequently enough to entertain the audience but not so often as to bore them. At one time programmers used index cards and rotation sheets that gave the air-staff rules for determining the next acceptable piece of music. Programmers now use computerized scheduling tools such as Selector and MusicMaster (Detailed Selector Info).

Rotation categories differ from station to station but the purpose of the categories is to allow the programmer to determine how often songs are heard. These rotation categories are placed on a wheel or hot clock. The hot clock gives the air-staff a visual representation of when the

categories of songs are to be played during the station’s rotation. Programmers construct hot clocks to reflect dayparts and audience demographics. It is not uncommon for stations to have many hot clocks depending upon time of day.

Programmers now place their predefined categories into programs like Selector and MusicMaster which then provide them with playlists. Some stations are run entirely by computer. (see

Common categories at a station might include:

 Power Cuts: The most popular songs appearing in current surveys. Played in

Ultra rotation.

 Super Cuts: Songs appearing in the remaining playlist slots. Played in High

rotation.

 Recurrents: Songs recently appearing on the charts. Played in Moderate

rotation.

 Golds: Former hits. Classic songs that the audience wants to hear

again-and-again. Played in Level rotation.

 Bronze: Former hit of a novelty, regional or special-interest nature. Played in

Light rotation.

Rotation categories are combined with codes to create the format scheme. For example a slow female vocal with guitar accompaniment that is number two on the charts might be classified as follows: S/1/B/F/PC. This indicates that the song has a slow tempo, simple accompaniment, bluesy lyrics, female vocalist and is a power cut played in ultra rotation.

News

At one time news accounted for the second largest amount of airtime at the average station. This has changed at most music stations since deregulation in the 1980s. It has changed even more since the passage of the Communication Act of 1996. Prior to deregulation, radio stations were required to provide a certain percentage of non-entertainment programming news and public affairs. News at many station is now limited to drive-time and contains a heavy emphasis on entertainment or lifestyle features. The Radio and Television News Directors Association RTNDA monitors the effects of deregulation on radio news and on employment of news personnel.

Public Affairs

Public Affairs programming has suffered even more than news since deregulation. Public Affairs programming often called “talk, interview or issue” has traditionally been heard during the early Sunday morning time slot. Some stations have eliminated public affairs programs all together.

Sports

At one time Sports programming was a special feature at many stations. It is now the entire format at some stations. Stations bid heavily for the privilege of carrying games from nearby professional or college teams. Most stations experience a ratings increase during game time. At one time Sports programming was the province of AM radio. Other stations, notably Classic Rock stations have begun carrying sports programming.

Radio listeners depend upon radio to provide them with information regarding the best route to take to and from work. Drive times are radio’s most listened to day parts. As grid lock and congestion become the rule in city after city, traffic becomes a more important format element. Organizations such as Metro Traffic and Shadow Networks now provide traffic at many radio stations (and now TV stations) throughout the country.

Weather

Weather is one of the primary reasons people listen to radio. It is a program element that is of interest to everyone. When people rise in the morning it is one of the first things they want to know. Stations use weather as a way of positioning themselves against the competition. Weather services such as the weather channel, color weather radar or featuring a local TV weather person are now staples at many stations. School closings during storms are an important service in many areas of the country.

Announcing

The announcer, DJ, or air personality sets the tone for the station. With the exception of stars, most radio announcing is tightly controlled. Announcing styles can be broken into three major categories: heavy, medium, and light.

Heavy The term “heavy” refers to the type of announcer that is allowed to express his/her personality. At many radio stations this is limited to drive time air personalities, particularly the morning drive announcer. These personalities are allowed to do more than just read liners. On occasion they are allowed to “break” format.

Medium This term refers to announcers who are allowed to show some personality but function within the format. Most of their announcing is limited to reading liners and expressing comments about the music, major topics of interest or the weather.

Light Announcers using a “light” announcing style function entirely within the boundaries of the format. They read liners and sound generic. One announcer is easily substituted for another.

Announcing style also varies according to format. DJs at youth-oriented stations take a more upbeat approach than do DJs working at adult-oriented stations. Day part also effects announcing style. The morning drive announcer tends to be the most upbeat followed by the afternoon drive announcer. Midday announcers take a more background approach. Evening announcers at adult-oriented stations use an even more relaxing approach.

Spots/Commercials

Stations use several strategies with regard to scheduling spots and maintaining audience. Spot clusters or stop sets are the most common. In addition stations often schedule commercial free hours. On the positive side, this increases the station’s ratings. As a result the station can raise the spot rate. On the negative side, it sends a message to the advertisers that their commercials are not very important.

Public Service Announcements

Public Service Announcements are spots that a station schedules free of charge. They can take the form of bulletin board announcements for upcoming community events or they can be more general in nature. Stations often choose the causes they are going to support. For example a station may take an issue such as child welfare and devote all of its public service time to that issue for a year. The station would produce spots highlighting the issue as well as promoting agencies in the community that support the issue.

Other stations take a more general approach but tailor their PSAs to meet the needs of their specific demographic. Announcements are used as a way to further identify with the community. Stations often distinguish their public service announcements by adding a tag line such as

“because station ’XYZ cares about the community.”

A recent trend with public service announcements is for stations to find a major sponsor for community organizations. This allows stations to “sell the time”, while still providing a free service to community groups. An example of this trend is a bank or utility company sponsoring the station’s community calendar.

Contests and Promotions

Contests and promotions have been a staple in radio from the beginning. Early broadcasters gave things away just to find out if anyone was listening. Effective contests are simple and take both actives (those who participate) and passives (those who do not) into consideration. Simple and or amusing contests are also the rule of the day.

The most common type of radio contest is one where you merely have to call the station to enter. Stations use these to involve the listening audience. The telephone calls are taped and the station has one more recording of someone proclaiming it their favorite radio station. These contests involve actives but passives often hear them as yet another screaming fan saying it’s his/her favorite station because he/she wanted to win. Stations persist with these contests because they are easy.

Stations promote themselves in a variety of ways. Among the most common is the remote broadcast . Appearing at an event or in a location popular with your listeners is an excellent way to gain visibility. Listeners are curious to see what their favorite air personalities look like. Stations also promote themselves by having air personalities host concerts and other public events.

The competitive 1990s have seen the development of “Guerrilla Promotions” where one station will show up at another station’s event and hand out promotional material. They also offer prizes to listeners who show up at the competing station’s event wearing clothing or carrying banners promoting their station. Stations have even gone so far as to charter airplanes towing their banner to fly above the competition’s event.

Simple yet effective warm weather promotions involve having station spotters give listeners prizes for listening to the station in public locations such as on the beach, at a picnic or on an inner city basketball court.

Jingles

Jingles are immensely popular and easily remembered. One simple way to prove just how effective jingles are is to ask someone who was alive when tobacco companies were allowed to advertise on radio and TV to sing a cigarette jingle that they remember. These ads have not been heard on radio or TV for more than 25 years, yet people remember them.

People remember their favorite radio jingles for years. Jingles can be used for a variety of purposes. One of the more common is as a transition between songs. Different tempos are used to change the pace of the program. If the DJ is going from an uptempo piece to a slow piece a jingle can be used to smooth the transition. Some stations will even have 12 versions of the same jingle recorded so that they can match the key of the next musical selection. Even news and talk stations uses jingles. News stations such as KYW in Philadelphia and KNX in Los Angeles, promote their jingles.

PAMS located in Dallas, Texas was the most popular jingle house during the 1960s and 1970s. Many of the classic jingles from the era are being re-released by JAM productions a jingle house founded by one of the old PAMS employees.

Other Transitions

Other transitions used like jingles include: voice overs, stingers and bumpers. These devices help give a station personality.

Voice-overs

A voice recorded without a music bed that can be played over the intro to a song or an

Stingers

Lazers and other futuristic sounds are often used to create a mood or ease a transition. They are often used in conjunction with voice-overs and jingles.

Bumpers

Bumpers are used to get into and out of breaks in the program. They are particularly popular with talk radio and often are brief pieces of the programs theme song. Music formats use bumpers as well during programs of love songs where the host is allowed to establish a mood and wants to make a clear differentiation between the program and commercials elements of the show.

Call letters

Radio stations work long and hard to come up with “a great set of calls.” Call letters are required by the FCC. They are a basic part of a station’s identity. (Station ID is call letters immediately followed by city of license.) Stations choose call letters that work well as slogans or clearly identify where they are located. For example: WILM is located in Wilmington. WDEL, also in Wilmington identifies itself as being in Delaware. WVUD stands for The Voice of the University of Delaware. WJBR is named after the station’s first owner, John B. Reynolds.

It has become customary for stations to incorporate their call letters into slogans or use them with their dial positions. For example, Power 99, B-101, Kiss 101.7. This is done to distinguish the station so that listeners will remember it during ratings time. It also helps listeners remember to come back to a particular dial position.

Features

Features add depth to formats by helping to further shape a station’s image. In addition, features provide the sales department with additional items to sell. Examples of features include: Casey Kasem’s top 20 countdown, John Tesh’s love songs, Walt “Baby” Love and Doug Banks’ urban music countdowns and Rick Dees’ Top 40 countdown.

Music station’s produce local features such as countdown shows of the day’s top requests or lunch time blocks of oldies. Talks stations often produce arts features or review shows. News stations may develop a series of political profiles. Anything of interest to a station’s target demographic can make a good feature.

Quarter Hour Maintenance

To the untrained listener radio programming can sound pretty random. Music, ids, and

commercials all seem to run together. According to (Keith, 1987) Rating surveys count listeners each quarter hour if they are tuned in for at least five minutes during that time. Thus, stations are inclined to sweep, or “hot track,” the quarter hour to retain listeners until they have been

Most stations avoid taking breaks at the :15, :30, and :45. By placing program material across these time periods they improve their ratings. A listener can be tuned to a station for as little as 10 minutes yet be counted as listening for two quarter hours. For example listeners who tune in at :10 after the hour, and listen to three of their favorite songs until :20 after the hour, have listened across two quarter hours. Even though they have listened for only 10 minutes the station is credited with 30 minutes of listening time. If the same listeners tune in at :05 after the hour and listen until the station takes a commercial break at :15 after the hour, the station receives credit for only one quarter hour. The amount of time spent listening is the same, yet the effect on the station’s ratings is vastly different.

Stations use other tricks to improve their quarter hour maintenance. Among them are commercial free hours and contests that have listeners count the number of songs heard during a given time period.

References

Keith, M. C. (1987). Radio programming: Consultancy and formatics. Focal Press: Boston.