Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue6.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f pro gram in highe r e duc atio n administratio n at Ke nt State Unive rsity, Ohio , USA

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Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n te c hno lo gy (IT) manage me nt: insights fro m K-1 2 sc ho o ls’ te c hno lo gy audits

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 7 7 –2 8 8

im por ta n t qu estion : “So h ow is m y sch ool or ga n iza tion doin g w ith r e ga r ds to IT im ple-m en ta tion ?”. In a n in cr ea sin gly cople-m petitive envir on m en t, sch ool lea der s m u st be con -cer n ed a bou t h ow IT is bein g u tilized in th eir sch ools a s com pa r ed w ith oth er sch ools a n d, m or e im por ta n tly, a s com pa r ed w ith in sigh ts of IT best pr a ctices in th e sch ool sector.

Background information

Th e sea r ch for best pr a ctices is n ot lim ited to IT in sch ools. Alm ost ever y field of stu dy a n d ever y pr ofession h a s som e for m of pr in ciples of best pr a ctices. Th e Cen ter for Adva n ced P u r ch a sin g Stu dies (CAP S), for exa m ple, defin ed best pr a ctices for th eir fi eld a s “th e iden tifica tion of policies, pr ocedu r es, a n d pr ogr a m s, r efer r ed to a s th e cr itica l su ccess fa ctor s, th a t top per for m er s a r e u sin g th a t lea d to su per ior per for m a n ce” (Ca ps, 1997). Th e bu sin ess sector u su a lly iden tifi es top per for m in g com pa n ies (w ith cr iter ia r a n gin g fr om level of pr ofita bility, r ela tive gr ow th to position w ith in th e in du str y) a n d str a te gies fou n d com m on a m on g th ese com pa n ies h ave typica lly pr ovided a fr a m ewor k for developin g in sigh ts a bou t best pr a ctices.

Sever a l Web sites h ave been developed to pr ovide in for m a tion r e ga r din g best pr a ctices in edu ca tion . For exa m ple, Dr u m m on d’s Web site pr ovides best pr a ctices in colle ge tea ch in g (see: w w w.n sccu x.scc.ctc.edu ~ ecepr og/ bstpr a c.h tm l). Sim ila r ly, Ch ick er in g a n d Ga m -son ’s Web site pr ovides seven pr in ciples for good pr a ctice in u n der gr a du a te edu ca tion (see: w w w.h cc.h aw a ii.edu / h ccin fo/ fa cdev/ 7_pr in ciples.h tm l).

Som e w r iter s h ave a r gu ed a ga in st th e n otion of best pr a ctices beca u se th ese pr a c-tices a r e often con ceived to offer a pr escr ip-tion or pr eten sion of u ltim a te excellen ce a n d to th e exten t th a t th e en vir on m en t is ch a n gin g a s well a s h u m a n k n ow ledge, a ttem pts to offer th e fin a l wor ds on best pr a ctices sh ou ld be viewed a s du biou s. For exa m ple, in a n a r ticle en titled “Th e m yth of best pr a ctices,” Str a ss-m a n n (1995) con clu ded th a t:

E xcellen t com pa n ies ca n a ch ieve su per ior per for m a n ce w ith ou t follow in g a n y sta n da r d in for m a tion tech n ology spen din g pa tter n . I ba se th is con clu sion on m y a n a lysis of th e bu dgets of Com pu ter wor ld’s P r em ier 100 com pa n ies over a two-yea r per iod. Th ese a r e or ga n iza tion s wh ose in for m a tion pr odu ctiv-ity is su per ior to oth er US cor por a tion s. (p. 1)

However, th er e is over wh elm in g in for m a tion to su ppor t ba sic pr in ciples of pr a ctices com -m on w ith h igh per for -m in g or ga n iza tion s in spite of differ en ces in th eir ta ctica l

a ppr oa ch es. Accor din g to th e US Gover n m en t, “th er e a r e som e over a ll or ga n iza tion a l a ttr ib-u tes th a t a r e cr itica l to sib-u ccessfib-u l in vestm en t eva lu a tion . Th ese sh a r ed, cr itica l a ttr ibu tes

a r e: sen ior m a n a gem en t a tten tion , over a ll m ission focu s, a n d a com pr eh en sive por tfolio a ppr oa ch to IT in vestm en t (1998, p. 3). Ash field Sch ools (1994, p. 5) in th e UK descr ibe th eir n a tion a l objectives for IT in sch ools:

(1) lea r n in g a ctivities m a k e effective u se of th e m ost u p-to-da te tech n ology; (2) th e sch ool cu r r icu lu m r efl ects th e u se of IT ou tside sch ool, ta k es a ccou n t of th e developin g IT ca pa bility of pu pils, ta k es a dva n ta ge of in for -m a tion r esou r ces -m a de ava ila ble by IT; (3) sch ool m a n a ger s a n d gover n or s fu lly u n der -sta n d th e im plica tion s of th e exten sive a n d ch a n gin g u se of IT in th e cu r r icu lu m ; (4) a ll tea ch er s k n ow h ow IT m ay be u sed to im pr ove lea r n in g; (5) a ll tea ch er s a r e ca pa ble of u sin g IT r esou r ces a n d a pplyin g th em effectively; (6) a ll pa r en ts r ecogn ize th e edu -ca tion a l ben efi ts of IT; (7) a ll sch ools a r e well-r esou well-r ced a n d a ble to give th eiwell-r pu pils a n d tea ch er s a ppr opr ia te a n d a dequ a te a ccess to IT; (8) a ccess to IT is a dequ a te to m a k e possi-ble lea r n in g ou tside sch ool for ever yon e a n d en a ble su ch lea r n in g for m a lly to be r ecogn ized wh eecogn ever a ppr opr ia te; (9) sch ool m a ecogn -a gem en t u ses IT efficien tly -a n d effectively for a dm in istr a tion ; a n d (10) a ll sch ools r e gu -la r ly eva lu a te th e im pa ct of IT on sta n da r ds, th e qu a lity of lea r n in g a n d th e qu a lity of tea ch in g. (p.5)

In deed, th ese in sigh tfu l objectives cou ld on ly h ave been der ived fr om a good u n der sta n din g of th e n a tu r e of tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a n d th e a ppr opr ia te IT pr a ctices in sch ools.

Methodological approach

Th er e a r e, per h a ps, m a n y w ays of a r r ivin g a t th e pr in ciples of best pr a ctices. As m en tion ed ea r lier, th e com m on est a ppr oa ch in th e bu si-n ess sector is to idesi-n tify th e m ost su ccessfu l or top per for m in g or ga n iza tion s w ith in a pa r ticu la r in du str y a n d a ttem pt to iden tify pr in ciples of oper a tion th a t a r e com m on to th ese or ga n iza tion s. However, th is a ppr oa ch is u n su ita ble for IT in sch ools beca u se m ost sch ools a r e still a t th e exper im en ta l sta ge w ith th eir IT im plem en ta tion a n d a lso beca u se of th e r a pid ch a n ges ta k in g pla ce w ith in th e IT in du str y itself. A m or e a ppr opr ia te a ppr oa ch (a n in dir ect a ppr oa ch ) u sed for th is pr oject exa m in ed IT im plem en ta tion str a te gies in va r iou s sch ool or ga n iza tion s w ith th e sole pu r pose of der ivin g in sigh ts of best pr a ctices.

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pa ck a ges); in ter view s of stu den ts, tea ch er s, a n d a dm in istr a tor s; a n d docu m en t a n a lysis. Th e pu r pose of th e exer cise for th ese gr a du a te stu den ts w a s to in vestiga te th e sta tu s of IT im plem en ta tion in th e sch ool or ga n iza tion .

After sever a l m on th s of developin g ba sic sk ills, exa m in in g IT fi n a n cia l issu es, discu ssin g IT lea der sh ip in volvem en t, a n d a n a lyzin g va r iou s IT pla n s, stu den ts a r e gen -er a lly equ ipped to develop a r esea r ch

a ppr oa ch in or der to a n swer qu estion s r e ga r din g th e exten t to wh ich a pa r ticu la r or ga n iza -tion or u n it h a s efficien tly a n d effectively im plem en ted IT. In a n swer in g th is qu estion , stu den ts a r e r equ ir ed to con du ct a com pr e-h en sive a u dit of a sce-h ool or sce-h ool distr icts, a n edu ca tion a l or ga n iza tion , a colle ge, or a u n it w ith in a u n iver sity a n d pr ovide a r esea r ch r epor t on th eir fi n din gs. F r om th e da ta col-lected on th is exer cise, on e is a ble to develop in sigh ts of IT best pr a ctices in sch ool or ga n i-za tion s.

As ca n be expected, stu den ts’ fi n din gs often va r y in soph istica tion a n d u sefu ln ess ba sed on th eir ow n r esea r ch sk ills a n d m otiva tion , cooper a tion fr om th e or ga n iza tion u n der investiga tion , a n d stu den ts’ k n ow ledge of IT in sch ools. However, a fter ca r efu lly a n a lyzin g h u n dr eds of pa ges of r esea r ch r epor ts fr om over 100 gr a du a te stu den ts, it is possible for m e, a s th eir pr ofessor, to glea n fr om th ese m a ter ia ls in for m a tion r e ga r din g IT best pr a ctices for sch ool m a n a gem en t. Th is in for m a -tion for m s th e ba sis of th is a r ticle.

Model of best practices

Ta ble I pr ovides a su m m a r y of elem en ts glea n ed fr om stu dyin g IT pr a ctices in sch ool distr icts w ith in th e n or th -ea st of Oh io, USA. Th ese elem en ts a r e defin ed a n d cr iter ia for m ea su r in g th eir a ch ievem en t a r e a lso pr o-vided.

Access rate

Access to IT is per h a ps th e m ost fu n da m en ta l of a ll IT goa ls. Tr a dition a lly, a ccess is viewed a s sim ply th e r a tio of com pu ter s to u ser s bu t, a s in dica ted in th is m odel, a ccess is best defin ed a s th e exten t to wh ich u ser s a r e a ble to lay h a n ds on fu n ction in g h a r dw a r e wh en n eeded. Th e m er e pr esen ce of com pu ter h a r dw a r e does n ot a u tom a tica lly r esu lt in a ccess; h en ce, th e n eed to iden tify th e pr ob-lem s a ssocia ted w ith a ccess.

Th e cr iter ia u sed to deter m in e a ccess r a te, of cou r se, in clu de th e r a tio of com pu ter s to u ser s. A h igh r a tio of com pu ter h a r dw a r e to u ser s wou ld su ggest h igh a ccessibility. For exa m ple, a ccessibility ou gh t to be h igh er a t a

sch ool w ith 10:1 pu pils to com pu ter r a tio th a n a sch ool w ith 30:1. On e m ay be tem pted to view a r a tio of 1:1 pu pil to com pu ter a s th e idea l scen a r io, bu t a s lon g a s th er e a r e n on -com pu ter -r ela ted edu ca tion a l a ctivities in sch ools, sch ools’ n eeds for com pu ter s do n ot w a r r a n t th is level of in vestm en t. In deed, over -com pu ter iza tion (th e level a t wh ich -com pu t-er s lay idle, wh t-er eby su pply ou tweigh s dem a n d) is a n in efficien t in vestm en t pr a ctice. Th e secon d cr iter ion in volves th e r a tio of ou tpu t devices to in pu t devices. Wh er ea s ever y com pu ter m ay n ot h ave its ow n pr in ter, a dequ a te ou tpu t devices sh ou ld be ava ila ble to su ppor t th e volu m e of ou tpu t jobs r equ ir ed by u ser s. La stly, a ccessibility m u st be defi n ed to in clu de th e loca tion of th e h a r dw a r e for a ll u ser s. Con sequ en tly, th e exten t to wh ich th e loca tion is a ccessible to h a n dica pped u ser s, pa r t-tim e, fu ll-tim e, you n g a n d old stu den ts m u st be ta k en in to con sider a tion in deter m in -in g th e a ccess r a te for a pa r ticu la r sch ool or ga n iza tion . Access r a te, th er efor e, ca n on ly be m ea su r ed by th e n u m ber of u ser s, th e ch a r -a cter istics of th ese u ser s, -a n d th e n u m ber -a n d a ppr opr ia ten ess of th e com pu ter h a r dw a r e sets ava ila ble. Th er efor e, it is a dvisa ble for a ccess to be defi n ed fr om th e poin t of view of u ser s r a th er th a n th a t of th e ser vice

pr ovider s. F igu r e 1 descr ibes h ypoth etica l a ccess r a tios over a per iod of 10 yea r s for a sch ool th a t is m a k in g tr u e pr ogr ess in in cr ea s-in g a ccess r a te.

Th e idea l pr a ctice wou ld be to gr a ph (a ccess-gr a m ) th e r a tio of pu pils to com pu ter a n n u a lly. With th is pr a ctice, sch ool lea der s wou ld be a ble to detect th eir sch ool’s IT a ccess tr en d a n d pr ogr ess. Th e essen ce of th ese sta tistics is to obser ve im pr ovem en t in a ccess r a te over tim e. An idea l IT pr a ctice wou ld be to con -tin u e to r ecor d a declin in g n u m ber of pr ob-lem s (a s per ceived by u ser s th em selves) in u ser s’ effor t to a ccess com pu ter ser vices. E a ch se gm en t of th e u ser s (pa r t-tim e, fu ll-tim e, a du lts, etc.) sh ou ld h ave its ow n a ccessgr a m .

IT leadership promise

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For t h is pu r pose, lea der sh ip pr om ise, a s a n elem en t of best pr a ct ices, is defi n ed a s t h e ext en t t o wh ich t h er e is a clea r visible lea der sh ip dr ivin g t ech n ologica l in it ia t ives w it h in t h e sch ool syst em . Hit h er t o, in m a n y sch ools, IT h a s evolved h a ph a za r dly in t h e a bsen ce of a pr oa ct ive a n d in t e gr a t ive lea der -sh ip.

IT lea der sh ip pr om ise ca n be a ssessed t h r ou gh fou r m ea su r a ble cr it er ia . F ir st , t h e ext en t t o wh ich lea der s a r e com pu t er lit er a t e is fu n da m en t a l t o t h eir IT lea der sh ip. Tech -n ology h a s becom e a -n i-n t e gr a l pa r t of sch ool oper a t ion a n d m a n a gem en t a n d, fr om a ll in dica t ion s, t ech n ology w ill con t in u e t o play a gr ea t er r ole in t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g in t h e 21st cen t u r y. Con sequ en t ly, com pu t er illit er -a cy -a m on g cu r r en t -a n d fu t u r e sch ool le-a der s is a ser iou s der elict ion of r espon sibilit y. In for m ed sch ool lea der s u n der st a n d sim ple com pu t er con ce pt s a n d t er m in ologies a n d,

wh ile t h ey n eed n ot be t ech n icia n s, t h ey ca n discu ss in t elligen t ly w it h t h eir t ech n icia n s on a ll IT in it ia t ives. In som e of t h e lea din g sch ools wh er e t h e IT a u dit w a s con du ct ed, sch ool pr in cipa ls a n d cen t r a l a dm in ist r a t ion per son n el in clu din g t h e su per in t en den t s h ave a dopt ed t h e pr a ct ice of a t t en din g sem i-n a r s a i-n d coi-n fer ei-n ces r ela t ii-n g t o IT ii-n sch ools on a r e gu la r ba sis.

Apa r t fr om bein g com pu t er lit er a t e, lea der -sh ip ca n a lso be m ea su r ed in t er m s of t h e level of a dvoca cy for fu ll u t iliza t ion of IT. Mor e oft en t h a n n ot , t ea ch er s a n d st a ff la g beh in d com pu t er developm en t a n d w it h ou t a clea r a u dible a dvoca cy fr om t h e lea der s, ch a n ge in sch ools ca n be a ver y slow pr ocess. Advoca cy is r efl ect ed in lea der sh ip com m it -m en t t o IT i-m ple-m en t a t ion . In on e of t h e in t er view s a su per in t en den t , w h o w a s h igh ly pr a ised by h is t ea ch er s a s a gr ea t a dvoca t e of t ech n ology, com m en t ed t h a t :

Table I

A mo de l o f IT be st prac tic e s in K-1 2 sc ho o ls

Factors Definition M easurable indicators

Access rate The extent to whic h users – Ratio of c omputers to users

enc ounter problems in laying – Ratio of printers to c omputers

hands on func tioning hardware – Ac c essibility of c omputer loc ations to users

Leadership potential The extent to whic h there – Level of leadership c omputer literac y

is a c lear visible leadership – Level of leadership advoc ac y

driving tec hnologic al initiatives – Effec tive use of tec hnology c ommittees

– Effec tive administrative struc ture and authority

Technology planning The extent to whic h tec hnologic al – Comprehensiveness of the plan

ac tivities and initiatives are – Collaboration in planning development

driven by a proac tive, systematic – Continuity of the planning c yc le

plan – Commitment to the plan

Staff development The extent to whic h staff – Personalized staff development plan

development stays ahead of – Inc entive assoc iated with staff development

tec hnologic al innovations utilization – Continuous staff development opportunities

Technical support The extent to whic h help – The waiting time

is available – The servic e quality

– The maintenanc e plan

Hardware and The extent to whic h – The effec tiveness of proc urement plan

software the most appropriate – The c ompatibility of hardware and software

tec hnology is in use – The effec tiveness of system with instruc tional goals

– The c ompatibility of system with admin system – The effec tiveness of a replac ement plan – Availability of disc arding plan

Technology budget The extent to whic h financ ial – The ratio of tec hnology budget to the total budget

resourc es are available to meet – The ratio of soft money to hard money

tec hnologic al goals – The budget philosophy in use

Infrastructural The extent to whic h non- – Appropriateness of room c onditions

facilities tec hnology related fac ilities – Appropriateness of furniture

are available to support effec tive – Appropriateness of temperature

utilization – Appropriateness of lighting fac ilities

Technology policy The extent to whic h the – Availability of c omprehensive polic y

and procedure establishment has formulated – Appropriateness of furniture

polic ies and proc edures to – Effec tive c ommunic ation of polic y

promote, regulate and c ontrol – Constant review of polic y and its effec ts

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it is difficu lt to h ave a n effective IT im ple-m en ted w ith ou t th e lea der s ta lk in g th e ta lk s a n d w a lk in g th eir ta lk s. I spea k of n ew in n o-va tion s a ll th e tim e a n d en cou r a ge tea ch er s to fi n d n ew w ays of u tilizin g IT in th eir a ctiv-ities. To be a n a dvoca te is to sell th e idea of IT to sta ff, tea ch er s, com m u n ity a n d I th in k we n eed th is to stay a h ea d of th e ga m e.

In a ddition , effective IT sch ools u se tech n ol-ogy com m ittees effectively. In on e of th e sch ools in vestiga ted, a com m ittee of ten tea ch -er s, a dm in istr a tor s, sta ff, stu den ts, a n d pa r en t r epr esen ta tives pr ovide a n a dvisor y r ole to th e sch ool lea der s on m a tter s r ela tin g to IT. Th e a dva n ta ges of a tech n ology com m ittee a r e m a n y. E a ch m em ber of th e com m ittee pr ovides a n a ddition a l a dvoca cy r ole a n d in for -m a tion r e ga r din g r esou r ces su ch a s gr a n ts th a t m ay fu r th er h elp IT m a n a gem en t in th e sch ool.

Apa r t fr om th e u se of tech n ology com m it-tees, effective sch ools h ave per son n el w ith th e sole r espon sibility of over seein g IT m a n a ge-m en t. Su ch per son n el a r e gen er a lly sen ior a dm in istr a tor s for th eir sch ool distr icts. It is a dvisa ble th a t th e ch ief in for m a tion officer for

a sch ool distr ict r epor ts dir ectly to th e sch ool su per in ten den t a n d to th e sch ool boa r d. Th e CIO, a lon g w ith th e tech n ology com m ittee a n d th e su per in ten den t, pr ovides th e n ecessa r y lea der sh ip for IT m a n a gem en t in effective sch ools. Wh ile th e sch ool su per in ten den t pr ovides th e execu tive lea der sh ip, th e CIO pr ovides th e tech n ica l lea der sh ip, a n d th e tech n ology com m ittee pr ovides th e politica l lea der sh ip to IT m a n a gem en t w ith in th e sch ool distr ict.

IT planning

In m a n y sch ools, IT a ctivities a r e disjoin ted a n d u n coor din a ted. Activities occu r a s in di-vidu a ls a r e m otiva ted to in itia te th em a n d to th e exten t th a t gr a n t r esou r ces becom e ava il-a ble to cil-a r r y ou t th ese il-a ctivities.

Con sequ en tly, a n effective pla n n in g

a ppr oa ch is often la ck in g a n d wh er e pla n n in g is don e a t a ll, little a tten tion is pa id to in sigh ts fr om th e liter a tu r e. P iccia n o (1998, p. 9) a ck n ow ledged th a t “th e m a jor im pedim en t to esta blish in g su ccessfu l com pu ter -ba sed a ppli-ca tion s in sch ools n ow is th e la ck of ppli-ca r efu l pla n n in g”. Sim ila r ly, Ma ddu xet a l. (1992) r epor ted th a t th e pr ocess of in te gr a tin g tech -n ology i-n sch ool h a s bee-n poor ly pla -n -n ed a -n d ch a otic. Com m en tin g a bou t h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s wh ich a r e n ot u n lik e sch ool or ga -n iza tio-n s i-n th is r e ga r d, Ca r tw r igh t (1996, p. 57) n oted th a t:

Of cou r se, m ost in stitu tion s pr ide th em -selves on pla n n in g for th e fu tu r e. After a ll, we tr y to for eca st wh a t stu den ts w ill n eed to k n ow fi ve to 25 yea r s in th e fu tu r e. We be ga n pla n n in g for tech n ology wh en com pu ter s beca m e im por ta n t to a dm in istr a tive a spects of r u n n in g a college or u n iver sity. In m ost ca ses, th ou gh , th a t ea r ly tech n ology pla n -n i-n g w a s idiosy-n cr a tic, h a d a sh or t tim e h or izon , a n d w a s ca r r ied ou t in r ela tively u n ila ter a l ter m s by discr ete u n its. (p. 57)

Th e a u th or wen t fu r th er to iden tify types of pla n n in g th a t ch a r a cter ize IT m a n a gem en t in m a n y edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s. For exa m ple, th e “en d-of-th e-yea r scr a m ble” is h a r dly a pr oa ctive a ppr oa ch bu t m a n y sch ools fin d th em selves in a fr en zy to spen d th e bu dget left-over on h a r dw a r e a cqu isition tow a r d th e en d of th e sch ool yea r. Also, a ccor din g to

Ca r tw r igh t (1996), a “n eo-pa sse ch a os” or “th e m oder n -day ostr ich ia n a ppr oa ch ” is a lso n ot a pr oa ctive pla n n in g str a te gy sin ce IT in itia tives a r e left in th e h a n ds of w h oever is in ter -ested. Th e a u th or obser ved th a t “wh en depa r t-m en ta l tech n ology r esou r ces a n d dir ection s a r e en tir ely depen den t u pon th e w h im s of th eir u n fetter ed, idiosyn cr a tic tech n ology gu r u s, it is n ot u n com m on th a t depa r tm en ts soon fin d th eir tech n ology ou t of da te a n d

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1 9 8 3 * 1 9 8 4 * * 1 9 8 6 * 1 9 9 0 * 1 9 9 3 * * 2 0 0 0 * (pro je c te d) *Source: Pic c iano (1 9 9 4 )

* *Source: Educ atio nal Statistic s Abstrac t

Note:1 . While pro gre ssive , pro ac tive sc ho o l le ade rs wo uld c o ntinue to mo nito r the ratio s o f c o mpute rs to pupils in the ir sc ho o ls and c o mpare the se statistic s with the natio nal tre nd, the mo st use ful info rmatio n is the e xte nt to whic h the supply o f te c hno lo gy in a sc ho o l me e ts the de mand fo r the te c hno lo gy.

2 . De mand fo r te c hno lo gy in a partic ular sc ho o l sho uld be mo nito re d and de fine d in re latio n to the c urre nt state -o f-the -art use o f te c hno lo gy in sc ho o ls. The re fo re , ac c e ss rate must be de fine d bo th quantitative ly and qualitative ly

Figure 1

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a dr ift fr om th e m a in str ea m ” (Ca r tw r igh t, 1996, p. 58). A “fa th er k n ow s best” is a pla n -n i-n g a ppr oa ch left com pletely i-n th e h a -n ds of th e h ea d com pu ter a dm in istr a tor s or th e CIOs (Ca r tw r igh t, 1996). Wh ile th is a ppr oa ch h a s som e a dva n ta ges (for exa m ple, th e tech n ica l people a r e com peten t in decidin g th e com pa tibility of n ew h a r dw a r e a cqu isition s), in n ova -tion s poor ly u n der stood wou ld on ly be lu k e-w a r m ly a dopted by th e sch ool com m u n ity. Ca r tw r igh t (1996, p. 58) a lso n oted a n oth er pla n n in g a ppr oa ch , th e “Pollya n n a /

P h illipa n n a u topia ”, in w h ich “a ll oth er in sti-tu tion a l a ctivities a r e pu t on h old for sever a l week s ea ch yea r wh ile in dividu a l depa r t-m en ts, colle ges, division s, a n d oth er u n its en ga ge in colla bor a tive con sen su s develop-m en t”. As develop-m en tion ed by th is a u th or, “th is joyfu l com bin a tion of bottom -u p a n d top-dow n str a te gies a ccom pa n ied w ith tw ice w eek ly br ea k fa st a n d lu ch m eetin gs yields con sisten t r esu lts: a lon g ter m pla n w ith a n n u a l bu dgets; a n oth er pla n n in g office; a n d a n aver a ge 7-pou n d weigh t ga in for ea ch of th e pa r tici-pa n ts” (Ca r tw r igh t, 1996, p. 58).

However, effective sch ools a r e str ivin g to lea r n th e lesson s a n d ben efi ts of good IT pla n -n i-n g. IT pla -n -n i-n g a s a -n elem e-n t of best pr a c-tices in sch ools is defi n ed a s th e exten t to wh ich tech n ica l a ctivities a n d in itia tives a r e dr iven by a pr oa ctive, system a tic pla n . Ra th er th a n depen din g on h a ppen sta n ce, effective sch ools a r e pr oa ctive in in itia tin g IT pla n s th a t w ill be r eleva n t to th e fu tu r e n eeds of stu den ts, tea ch er s, a n d th e en tir e sch ool com -m u n ity.

P iccia n o (1998) iden tifi ed fou r cr iter ia of best pr a ctices in IT pla n n in g, wh ich a r e ch a r -a cter istics of IT best pr -a ctices in sch ools. F ir st, effective IT pla n n in g is com pr eh en sive, cover in g a ll th e essen tia l elem en ts of in for m a -tion tech n ology. A com pr eh en sive IT pla n iden tifies IT goa ls, lin k s goa ls to r esou r ces a n d bu dgets, exa m in es possible im plem en ta tion pr oblem s, a n d develops str a te gies to en h a n ce IT m a n a gem en t in th e sch ool. In deed, a com -pr eh en sive pla n wou ld en ta il con sider a tion of a ll th e best pr a ctices discu ssed in th is a r ticle.

Th e secon d ch a r a cter istic of IT in effective sch ools is colla bor a tion . IT pla n n in g in effective sch ools is bottom u p w ith pla n n in g in for -m a tion flow in g fr o-m th ose wh o a r e ch a r ged w ith th e im plem en ta tion of th e pla n ; it is top-dow n w ith th e blessin g of th ose w h o h ave th e power of r esou r ce a lloca tion ; it is str a te gic in th a t it is a lign ed w ith th e fu tu r e vision of th e sch ool or ga n iza tion ; a n d it en joys th e su ppor t of im por ta n t sta k e h older s. Th e IT pla n n in g pr ocess becom es a n im por ta n t politica l tool a s pla n n er s colla bor a te w ith differ en t se gm en ts of th e com m u n ity. On e of th e sch ools stu died h a d a loca l libr a r ia n a n d th e ow n er of a loca l

com pu ter bu sin ess ser vin g in th e pla n n in g com m ittee.

An oth er ch a r a cter istic of effective IT pla n -n i-n g is co-n ti-n u ity. IT pla -n -n i-n g is a -n o-n goi-n g pr ocess in sch ools w ith best pr a ctices. In th is w ay, sch ools a r e a ble to k eep in tou ch w ith th e con sta n tly ch a n gin g wor ld of tech n ology a n d con tin u e to tr a n sla te th ese ch a n ges in to va lu a ble exper ien ce for th eir sch ools. Th is is con -tr a r y to th e en d-of-th e-yea r scr a m ble or th e sh or t-tim e, on e-sh ot pla n n in g a ppr oa ch es th a t a r e fou n d in m a n y less effective sch ools. Mon i-tor in g a ctivities sta r t a t th e poin t of im ple-m en ta tion a n d pr ovide da ta for th e n ext sta ge of pla n n in g w ith a n ever -en din g in for m a tion ga th er in gdeliber a tion sim plem en ta tion -m on itor in g loop.

Th e la st ch a r a cter istics a s su ggested by P iccia n o (1994) is com m itm en t. Sch ools a r e n otor iou s for pla n s th a t en joy lim ited su ppor t a n d h ave little or n o com m itm en t fr om im por -ta n t s-ta k eh older s. Com m itm en t is ea r n ed in IT effective sch ools th r ou gh pa r ticipa tion a n d in for m a tion sh a r in g. P a r ticipa tion br eeds en th u sia sm a n d en th u sia sm , on th e oth er h a n d, pr ovides th e en er gy n eeded for effective im plem en ta tion of IT pla n s. Th ese fou r ch a r a cter istics for m th e cor n er ston e of IT pla n -n i-n g i-n sch ools wh er e best pr a ctices a r e em br a ced.

Staf f development

Sch ools in Am er ica r equ ir e sta ff developm en t for th eir tea ch er s a n d sta ff. However, m ost of th e sta ff developm en t cu r r en tly ava ila ble con cen tr a tes on cu r r icu lu m a n d peda gogica l m a tter s. Sin ce Beck er (1991) n oted th a t on ly a sm a ll fr a ction of tea ch er s a r e m a jor com pu ter u ser s, sch ools em br a cin g best pr a ctices in IT m a n a gem en t h ave m a de it m a n da tor y for th eir tea ch er s to h ave som e com pu ter exper i-en ce a n d h ave m a de oppor tu n ities ava ila ble for th ese tea ch er s to u pda te th eir com pu ter sk ills a n d k n ow ledge.

IT best pr a ctices defi n e sta ff developm en t a s th e exten t to wh ich sta ff developm en t stays a h ea d of tech n ologica l in n ova tion s u tiliza -tion . On e of th e in ter viewees com m en ted a bou t h er sch ool: “th e idea is to stay a h ea d if you ca n . Wh ile “CU-See Me” (See You See Me) in n ova tion is yet to be w idely a dopted, we h ave a lr ea dy h a d two sem in a r s w ith a n a ttem pt to explor e its poten tia ls for ou r sch ools.”

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h a d h a d a n d th e cu r r en t tr a in in g n eeded. In on e sch ool, ea ch sta ff developm en t pla n is r eviewed by th e tech n ology com m ittee, w ith th e in ten tion of pr ovidin g a ddition a l tr a in in g r ecom m en da tion s wh er e n ecessa r y.

Secon d, sch ools w ith effective IT m a n a ge-m en t a ssocia te in cen tives w ith sta ff develop-m en t. Sta ff developdevelop-m en t su cceeds to th e exten t th a t th er e a r e r esou r ces a lloca ted to fu lfill tea ch er s’ pla n s. Mor a le wou ld da m pen a n d en er gy wou ld ea sily dissipa te wh er e tim e a n d effor t a r e pu t in to developin g a sta ff devel-opm en t th a t goes la r gely u n fu n ded. Som e sch ools fin d cr ea tive w ays to m otiva te th eir tea ch er s. In on e loca l sch ool, a la ptop com -pu ter w a s pr ovided to ea ch tea ch er ’s cla ss a fter a tten din g tr a in in g session s.

La stly, sch ools w ith effective IT m a n a ge-m en t ge-m a k e oppor tu n ities ava ila ble for sta ff developm en t on a con tin u ou s ba sis. Sta ff developm en t is n ot a on etim e even t a s com -m on ly fou n d in less effective sch ools. E ffective tea ch er s r eceive con tin u ou s tr a in in g; h en ce, sta ff developm en t becom es a con tin u ou s a ctiv-ity. Also, a lth ou gh tea ch er s a r e en cou r a ged to su bm it pla n s for th eir ow n sta ff developm en t, th ese pla n s a r e flexible en ou gh to a ccom m o-da te u n expected tr a in in g sh ou ld it becom e n ecessa r y. Un a n ticipa ted oppor tu n ities su ch a s com pu ter fa ir s in th e loca l r e gion wh er e edu ca tion a l softw a r e pa ck a ges wou ld be dis-played a n d dem on str a ted becom e a ttr a ctive sta ff developm en t oppor tu n ities for tea ch er s. In on e sch ool, som e tea ch er s wer e given a h a lf-day off to a tten d su ch u n a n ticipa ted fa ir s. Sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s a r e a n essen tia l com pon en t of best pr a ctices in IT m a n a ge-m en t a n d oppor tu n ities for r etr a in in g a r e a n im por ta n t in dica tion of a dm in istr a tive su p-por t.

Technical support

Tech n ica l su ppor t is in evita ble in a n y cr edible IT m a n a gem en t, especia lly in sch ool or ga n iza -tion s wh er e th er e a r e h u n dr eds of com pu ter ter m in a ls a n d sever a l h u n dr eds of u ser s, m ost of wh om a r e ch ildr en w ith a n in cr edible pen -ch a n t to tr a de softw a r e pa ck a ges fr om u su a lly u n k n ow n sou r ces. Sch ools, a s sh ou ld be expected, exper ien ce a la r ge n u m ber of tr ou -blesh ootin g pr oblem s da ily, r a n gin g fr om a n eoph yte str u gglin g to oper a te a com pu ter th a t is n ot sw itch ed on to a n exper ien ced u ser a ttem ptin g to sa lva ge a file r ava ged by a m ys-ter iou s vir u s. Wh ile m a n y of th e tr ou blesh oot-in g pr oblem s a t sch ools cou ld be pr even ted w ith pr oper tr a in in g, it wou ld be m yopic n ot to h ave a dequ a te r esou r ces in pla ce on a con -tin u ou s ba sis to r espon d to th ese pr oblem s.

For effective IT sch ools, tech n ica l su ppor t is defin ed a s th e exten t to wh ich h elp is ava ila ble to u ser s. Th e wor d “h elp” sh ou ld be defi n ed in its br oa dest sen se to in clu de th e th r ee m ea su r -a ble cr iter i-a iden tifi ed in th e m odel (See T-a ble I). Per h a ps th e m ost im por ta n t cr iter ion to eva lu a te tech n ica l su ppor t is th e a m ou n t of tim e it ta k es for u ser s to get th eir pr oblem s solved. Tech n ica l su ppor t is cr itica l in sch ools beca u se com pu ter -ba sed in str u ction s depen d ver y m u ch on th e sm ooth r u n n in g of equ ip-m en t for th e objectives to be a ch ieved. Cla sses wh er e th er e is a n exa ct n u m ber of com pu ter s to ch ildr en h ave a m a jor pr oblem if on e ch ild h a s a tech n ica l pr oblem w ith h is or h er m a ch in e du r in g in str u ction . Wh er e th is occu r s, th e cla ssr oom tea ch er is for ced to a tten d to th e ch ild, k eepin g on h old th e r est of th e ch ildr en . Cla ssr oom objectives w ill be th w a r ted if a tech n ica l pr oblem s ta k es m or e th a n five m in u tes of th e cla ssr oom tea ch er ’s tim e. Alter n a tively, th e tea ch er m ay sen d for h elp, k eepin g th e ch ild on h old for h elp to a r r ive wh ile pr oceedin g w ith th e cla ssr oom in str u ction . A ch ild wou ld be fr u str a ted sh ou ld th e h elp ta k e m or e th a n 10 m in u tes to a r r ive. Con sequ en tly, th e w a itin g tim e for tech n ica l h elp is a cr itica l con cer n in effective IT sch ools.

Th e secon d com pon en t of th e tech n ica l su ppor t a ddr esses th e issu e of qu a lity of ser -vice. E ffective tech n ica l h elp is th a t wh ich a ctu a lly r ectifies th e pr oblem s bein g exper i-en ced by a u ser. Best pr a ctices, th er efor e, ca ll for a pr om pt dia gn osis of a u ser ’s pr oblem a n d a qu ick decision a s to h ow best to solve th e pr oblem . E ven wh en a br ea k dow n is ver y m u ch th e fa u lt of a stu den t, a positive a ttitu de is n ecessa r y on th e pa r t of th e tech n ica l su p-por t per son n el. Ra th er th a n a pp-por tion in g bla m e, best pr a ctices r equ ir e th a t th e pr ocess of solvin g th e pr oblem be con ver ted in to a n edu ca tion a l exper ien ce for th e ch ildr en .

A n ew “exper t gr ou p” is em er gin g in ou r edu ca tion a l la n dsca pe. To th e exen t th a t in str u ction s a r e com pu ter -ba sed, th is gr ou p, th e com pu ter tech n ica l cr ew, sta n ds between tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g, between th e tea ch er a n d th e pu pils, between in str u ction a l goa ls a n d goa l a tta in m en t. Un for tu n a tely, few of th e pr esen t coh or t of tech n icia n s h ave been tr a in ed to u n der sta n d sch ool cu ltu r e a n d to h ave edu ca tion a l goa ls a s th eir pr im a r y con -cer n . Few h ave th e m en ta lity of a ssistin g th e tea ch er ’s wor k a n d fa cilita tin g th e tea ch er ’s effor ts. For exa m ple, in on e in stitu tion , a pr ofessor wh o w a s fr a n tica lly “be ggin g” or “bu ggin g” th e tech n ica l m em ber s for h elp stu m bled on th is e-m a il m essa ge fr om on e tech n icia n to a n oth er :

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om itted), th en to you a n d n ow you to m e. J u st lik e I told h im , a n d [Tech n icia n B] told, a n d [Tech n icia n C] told h im , th e fi le is cor r u pt. He m oved h is Ma cDr aw fi les w ith a P C a n d th a t str ipped th e r esou r ce [fi les] (ir on ic h ow we wer e h avin g th is discu ssion ea r lier today?) wh ich con ta in s in for m a tion vita l to r ecr ea tin g th e im a ge. Th e bottom lin e is th is, wh eth er h e lik es it or n ot: THE F ILE IS COR-RUP T! Th er e’s n oth in g a n yon e ca n do except h im a n d h e w ill n eed to r ecr ea te th a t fi le. F r a n k ly, it’s h is ow n fa u lt for cr ea tin g th e fi les w ith som eth in g a s obscu r e a s Ma cDr aw a n d th en w a n tin g th em conver ted to w in -dow s AN D N OT HAVIN G A F RE AKIN G BACKUP !!! Wow th a t ir k s m e. Sor r y to ven t on you , it’s n ot you r fa u lt, of cou r se.

Of cou r se, th is in fu r ia tin g e-m a il essen tia lly sever ed fu r th er com m u n ica tion between th e tech n ica l people a n d th e pr ofessor. Yet, th e or ga n iza tion is payin g for tech n ica l su ppor t, bu t su ch su ppor t wou ld be u n der u tilized wh er e th e tech n ica l cr ew la ck pr ofession a l-ism , a n d a n u n der sta n din g of th eir r ole in th e edu ca tion a l sector, a n d essen tia l in ter per -son a l r ela tion s.

An in for m a tion tech n ology pla n is a com -pr eh en sive pla n th a t en com pa sses oth er pla n s. On e of th ese pla n s is th e m a in ten a n ce pla n wh ich focu ses pr im a r ily on a n ticipa ted a n d n on -a n ticipa ted tr ou blesh ootin g pr ob-lem s. E n su r in g th a t loose ca bles a r e tigh ten ed u p, k eyboa r ds a r e per iodica lly clea n ed, u n w a n ted m a ter ia ls in th e h a r d dr ives a r e deleted, a n d ch a n gin g pr in ter s’ ca r tr idges a n d in k bottles on a r e gu la r ba sis a r e pa r t of im por ta n t m a in ten a n ce effor ts – effor ts th a t m u st be pla n n ed in a dva n ce. Sin ce sch ool a ctivities a r e pr ogr a m m ed a ccor din g to th e sch ool ca len da r, m a in ten a n ce pla n s m u st r eflect sch ool pr ogr a m m in g.

Sch ools in vestiga ted h ave differ en t tech n i-ca l su ppor t a r r a n gem en ts. In on e of th e sch ools, tea ch er s a n d stu den ts a r e tr a in ed to r espon d to m in or tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem s. Per h a ps th is is th e m ost effective w ay beca u se stu den ts a r e a ble to h elp on e a n oth er to solve th eir ow n pr oblem s. An oth er sch ool h a s a voca tion a l depa r tm en t wh er e stu den ts a r e specifica lly tr a in ed to h a n dle m ost

tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem s. Th is gr ou p of voca -tion a l stu den ts r espon d to tech n ica l su ppor t r equ ests a s a m ea n s of fu r th er in g th eir ow n tr a in in g. Th ese sch ools h ave th e sh or test w a itin g tim e a n d, a bove a ll, ben efi t fr om stu -den ts’ fr ee la bor. Oth er sch ools wh er e fa u lty com pu ter s h ave to be sh ipped to th e cen tr a l office h ave a con sider a bly lon ger w a itin g tim e a n d tea ch er s a n d stu den ts r epor t m u ch fr u s-tr a tion w ith th is system .

It is im por ta n t th a t ever y tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem be r ecor ded to k eep tr a ck of th eir n a tu r e a n d fr equ en cy of occu r r en ce. E ffective

IT sch ools wou ld r equ est th a t u ser s r a te th e qu a lity of th e h elp a n d specify h ow lon g it ta k es for th em to get th eir pr oblem s solved. With th is a r r a n gem en t, sch ool lea der s a r e a ble to k eep tr a ck of pr ogr ess w ith th eir tech -n ica l su ppor t system .

Hardware and software decisions

Decision s r e ga r din g h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e a r e cr itica l in IT m a n a gem en t. Th is is so beca u se h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e bu dgets m ay r u n in to sever a l h u n dr eds of th ou sa n ds of dolla r s for on e sch ool distr ict. A system a tic a ppr oa ch for r esolvin g som e of th ese decision s is n oticea ble in sch ools w ith effective IT pr a c-tices.

Ha r dw a r e a n d softw a r e com pon en ts of best pr a ctices is defi n ed a s th e exten t to wh ich th e m ost a ppr opr ia te tech n ologica l system is in u se. F ive ch a r a cter istics a r e obviou s in effec-tive IT sch ools. F ir st, th ese sch ools h ave a n efficien t pr ocu r em en t pla n . A pr ocu r em en t pla n en ta ils pr oa ctive th ou gh t a bou t sa le ser vices, deliver y ser vices, a n d a fter sa le ser -vices. Wh ile differ en t ven dor s a r e often solicited, th e decision a s to th e best ven dor is on ly a r r ived a t a fter a ser iou s a n a lysis of ea ch ven dor ’s tota l pa ck a ge. Less effective sch ools seldom pla n a h ea d r e ga r din g pr ocu r em en t a n d on ly scr a m ble for ven dor s wh en fa ced w ith a n u r gen t n eed to a cqu ir e h a r dw a r e.

Som e sch ools a r e cu r r en tly exper im en tin g w ith lea sin g com pu ter s dir ectly fr om th e m a n u fa ctu r er s. Most of th ese m a n u fa ctu r er s pr ovide dir ect tech n ica l su ppor t a n d w ill r epla ce obsolete equ ipm en t a t th e en d of ea ch con tr a ct. Wh ile th is h a s a n a dva n ta ge in th a t sch ool lea der s wou ld n ot h ave to be con cer n ed w ith h ow to disca r d th eir com pu ter s, lea sin g ca n be m or e expen sive th a n dir ect a cqu isition . Th er efor e, it is a dvisa ble th a t a ca r efu l ca lcu -la tion be don e to com pa r e th ese option s.

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effective sch ools, in com pa tible system s w ill con tin u e to be fr u str a tin g for sch ool lea der s.

Th e pu r pose of com pu ter s in sch ool is to en h a n ce tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. Th er efor e, th e effectiven ess of th e IT system in a ch ievin g in str u ction a l goa ls is of pa r a m ou n t im por -ta n ce. For IT to be in str u ction a lly effective, it m u st a ch ieve th e follow in g cr iter ia : it m u st be ea sy for tea ch er s to u n der sta n d a n d u se, a ttr a ctive to stu den ts, a da pta ble to va r ied in str u ction a l objectives, a n d th e a dva n ta ges of u sin g th e system sh ou ld clea r ly ou tweigh th e tim e a n d effor ts n eeded to oper a te it.

E ffective sch ools em ploy IT to a ch ieve th eir a dm in istr a tive fu n ction s. Th ese fu n ction s r a n ge fr om da ta ba se m a n a gem en t for stu den ts to u sin g electr on ic m a il for sta ff com m u n ica tion a n d to u sin g sch edu ler s to m a n a ge com -m on r oo-m s’ a ctivities.

Few sch ool lea der s th in k a bou t th e pr oblem of equ ipm en t obsolescen ce. Com pu ter s a r e n ot bu ilt to la st for ever. In fa ct, m icr ocom pu ter s h ave a n aver a ge life spa n of fi ve to seven yea r s. It is im por ta n t to differ en tia te between com -pu ter life spa n a s it r ela tes to efficien cy a n d a s it r ela tes to fu n ction a lity. Micr ocom pu ter s m ay r em a in fu n ction a l for m a n y yea r s, per -h a ps 15 yea r s or m or e, bu t t-h e life spa n effi-cien cy is m u ch sh or ter. Wh ile th e ea r ly m icr o-com pu ter s developed m ay still oper a te fu n c-tion a lly today, th ey wou ld be gr ossly in effi-cien t a s com pa r ed w ith th e m oder n Pen tiu m m icr ocom pu ter s. Con sequ en tly, effective IT sch ools wou ld h ave a r epla cem en t pla n a s a pa r t of th eir over a ll IT pla n . In on e sch ool, a n a ttem pt w a s m a de to n u m ber ea ch com pu ter w ith a ser ia l n u m ber, a cqu isition da te, a n d su ggested r epla cem en t da te. For exa m ple, a com pu ter w ith th e follow in g n u m ber : 112-92-98, h a s a ser ia l n u m ber of 112, w a s a cqu ir ed in 1992, a n d it is a dvisa ble to r epla ce th e equ ip-m en t by 1998 a ll th in gs bein g equ a l.

Closely a k in to th e r epla cem en t pla n is th e issu e of wh a t to do w ith th e obsolete com pu t -er s. Most sch ools h ave n o pr oa ctive w ay to dea l w ith obsolete com pu ter s. Sch ools h ave stor a ge r oom s litter ed w ith disca r ded com -pu ter ju n k s. Un for tu n a tely, th e com -pu ter in du str y is yet to com e u p w ith a w idely a ccepta ble w ay of dea lin g w ith obsolete com -pu ter equ ipm en t. Un til m a n u fa ctu r er s develop a r ecyclin g str a te gy, sch ool lea der s w ill h ave to dea l w ith th e issu e of disca r din g r etir ed com pu ter s.

Technology budgets

Ober lin (1996) pr ovided a n in -de pth discu ssion of fin a n cia l issu es r ela tin g to tech n ology. Th ose wh o a r e n ew to tech n ology often h ave a w r on g n otion r e ga r din g fin a n cin g tech n ology.

Ma n y th in k tech n ology is a on e-tim e in vest-m en t a n d vest-m a n y vest-m or e th in k tech n ology w ill pr ovide im m edia te, dr a m a tic cost r edu ction for th eir or ga n iza tion s. E xper ien ce w ith IT h a s pr oven to th e con tr a r y. In deed, costs con -tin u e to in cr ea se in sch ools a s th ey str ive to em br a ce tech n ology even a t a tim e th a t th e fu ll a dva n ta ges fr om tech n ology in vestm en t a r e difficu lt to qu a n tify. However, som e h ave a r gu ed th a t th e tr u e cost of tech n ology is n ot investin g in it.

For th e pu r pose of best pr a ctices in IT m a n -a gem en t, th e tech n ology bu dget wou ld be defin ed a s th e exten t to wh ich fin a n cia l r esou r ces a r e m a de ava ila ble to m eet tech n o-logica l goa ls. Th r ee im por ta n t con sider a tion s em er ged fr om th e IT a u dits con du cted in sch ools loca ted in n or th -ea st Oh io. E a ch sch ool h a s its ow n tech n ology bu dget ph iloso-ph y, a lth ou gh th is iloso-ph ilosoiloso-ph y m ay n ot be clea r ly sta ted. Th r ee bu dget ph ilosoph ies wer e a ppa r en t in th e sch ools in vestiga ted. Wh er e th er e is n o con sciou sly developed tech n ology pla n , th e tech n ology bu dget ph ilosoph y, a lbeit u n sta ted, is sim ply “w a it a n d see.”

For tu n a tely, th e n u m ber of sch ools w ith a w a it a n d see a ttitu de is fa st dim in ish in g.

Th e secon d tech n ology bu dget ph ilosoph y ca n be descr ibed a s a “cu t-you r -coa t-a ccor d-in g-to-you r -fa br ic.” With th is a ppr oa ch , th e a m ou n t of fi n a n cia l r esou r ces ava ila ble, a fter a ll th e n ecessa r y con tin gen cies h ave been bu dgeted for, deter m in es IT pr ogr ess. J u st a s on e wh o cu ts h is/ h er coa t a ccor din g to th e ava ila ble fa br ic m ay en d u p w ith a n over - or u n der -sized coa t, th is a ppr oa ch , a lth ou gh th e m ost con ser va tive of a ll, is seldom a str a te gic, pr oa ctive, a n d sm a r t option in a n in cr ea sin gly com petitive en vir on m en t.

Th e th ir d a ppr oa ch m ay be descr ibed a s th e “blu e sk y” bu dgetin g pr a ctice. Oper a tin g u n der th is ph ilosoph y, IT pla n n er s develop th eir tech n ology goa ls for th e yea r u n per tu r bed by con sider a tion s of fin a n cia l con -str a in ts. Activities a r e pla n n ed to r eflect IT goa ls, a n d th en r esou r ces a r e sou gh t to a ccom -plish th e pla n . A “blu e sk y” IT bu dgetin g ph ilosoph y is a n a ggr essive a ppr oa ch a n d ver y su ita ble for a com petitive envir on m en t. However, u n r ea listic or over a m bitiou s pla n -n i-n g pr a ctice m ay h ave a deva sta ti-n g effect o-n th e sch ool or ga n iza tion . To pr even t th is fr om h a ppen in g, pla n n er s oper a tin g u n der th e blu e sk y ph ilosoph y m ay develop th eir pla n in sever a l ph a ses. E a ch ph a se w ill be a ch ieved a s fin a n cia l r esou r ces becom e ava ila ble.

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ch a r ge of r esea r ch in g gr a n ts in clu din g tech n ology gr a n ts. Oth er sch ools a ctively en cou r -a ge th eir te-a ch er s to develop -a n d su bm it gr -a n t pr oposa ls to fu n d tech n ology in sch ool. It is va lid to say th a t m a n y sch ools in th e USA wou ld h ave r ecor ded in fin itesim a l pr ogr ess in IT h a d exter n a l gr a n ts n ot been sou gh t a n d obta in ed. However, effective sch ool lea der s h ave discover ed th a t con cr ete a n d con sisten t pr ogr ess for th eir sch ools depen ds on th e exten t to wh ich sta ble fu n din g is m a de ava il-a ble on il-a yeil-a r ly bil-a sis. To th is en d, th e r il-a tio of soft m on ey to h a r d m on ey is m on itor ed ca r e-fu lly. Th e idea l pr a ctice is to gr a du a lly sh ift fu n din g fr om soft m on ey, wh ich ten ds to be m or e r estr ictive a n d er r a tic, to h a r d m on ey th a t th e sch ool lea der s ca n m a n ipu la te str a te-gica lly.

Th e la st best pr a ctice con sider a tion , closely a k in to th e soft/ h a r d m on ey r a tio, is th e pr opor tion of th e a n n u a l oper a tin g bu dget com -m itted to tech n ology. To be pr oa ctive, sch ool lea der s in effective sch ools h ave deliber a ted on wh a t fr a ction of th e oper a tin g bu dget sh ou ld be a lloca ted to IT. Soft m on ey becom es a n extr a to th is a n n u a l bu dget. Havin g a fr a c-tion of th e a n n u a l oper a tin g bu dget a lloca ted to IT pr ovides a solid ba sis for pla n n in g a n d for con vin cin g tea ch er s a n d sta ff th a t sch ool lea der s w ill m a k e fu n ds ava ila ble for th eir tech n ology vision .

Infrastructural facilities

Su ccessfu l im plem en ta tion of IT m a n a gem en t r equ ir es m or e th a n a n a ssem bla ge of com pu ter h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e. Th er e a r e n on -com pu ter r ela ted m a ter ia ls or fa cilities th a t m u st be a cqu ir ed a n d esta blish ed for IT to be effective in sch ools. For th is pu r pose, in fr a -str u ctu r a l fa cilities, a s a fu n ction of best pr a ctices, a r e defin ed a s th e exten t to wh ich n on -tech n ology-r ela ted fa cilities a r e ava ila ble to su ppor t effective IT u tiliza tion .

Most m icr ocom pu ter s ca n com for ta bly be h ou sed in r oom tem per a tu r e so on e or two com pu ter s in a n aver a ge size r oom m ay n ot w a r r a n t a n a dju stm en t in th e r oom tem per a -tu r e. However, com pu ter s em it h ea t a n d it qu ick ly becom es u n com for ta ble for u ser s in a n over cr ow ded r oom . F r om per son a l exper ien ce, tea ch in g in a com pu ter la bor a tor y du r -in g th e h ot su m m er m on th s w ith ou t a ppr opr i-a te r oom tem per i-a tu r e ci-a n be ver y fr u str i-a tin g for both stu den ts a n d tea ch er s. As th e n u m ber of com pu ter s to be h ou sed in a r oom in cr ea ses, a tten tion m u st be pa id to th e r oom ven tila tion a n d tem per a tu r e.

Stu den ts a r e spen din g a n in cr ea sin g n u m -ber of h ou r s on com pu ter s; th u s, m a tter s r ela t-in g to er gon om ics a r e becom t-in g cr u cia l for

sch ool lea der s. Th e k in d of fu r n itu r e in u se h a s ser iou s im plica tion s for IT effectiven ess a n d, a lso, ser iou s effects for th e h ea lth of th e u ser s. Th er e a r e sch ools wh er e r e gu la r desk s a n d ch a ir s a r e still bein g u sed, bu t a n in cr ea s-in g n u m ber of sch ools a r e s-in vests-in g m or e a n d m or e in fu r n itu r e specia lly design ed for com -pu ter s.

Most sch ools h ave a loca l a r ea n etwor k (LAN ) wh ich ca lls for a gr ea t dea l of w ir in g. Wh er e con n ection s a r e sloppy w ith ca bles litter in g th e fl oor, poor com m u n ica tion a m on g com pu ter s m ay r esu lt, a cciden ts in volvin g in ju r ies m ay occu r a n d, a bove a ll, th e a es-th etic a spect is h igh ly r edu ced. Con sequ en tly, a tten tion to th e r oom con dition s is a w ise IT m a n a gem en t pr a ctice. Room ligh tin g is a lso a cr u cia l dim en sion of th e r oom con dition s. Ma n y com pu ter r oom s a r e equ ipped w ith th e n or m a l cla ssr oom ligh tin g fa cilities. However, th is ligh tin g a r r a n gem en t becom es in a ppr opr ia te wh er e m u ltim edia com pu ter opr esen ta tion s a r e expected to be don e. Ligh ts a r e gen -er a lly sw itch ed off to a ch ieve a sh a r p con tr a st on th e scr een wh en pr esen ta tion softw a r e is u sed. Bu t, u n der th is con dition , stu den ts fi n d it extr em ely difficu lt to ta k e dow n n otes du r -in g pr esen ta tion s. Sch ools w ith effective IT pr a ctices h ave desk ligh ts th a t ca n be dim m ed by in dividu a l u ser s. Th is a llow s ea ch u ser to a dju st th e desk ligh t a s n eeded by th e u ser w ith ou t disr u ptin g th e cla ss pr esen ta tion .

IT policy

IT h a s becom e a ver y power fu l tool sin ce th e in te gr a tion of com m u n ica tion devices, com -pu ter s, a n d videos. Th e a ttr a ction is u n lim ited for ch ildr en (a n d a du lts too) a n d w h er e th er e a r e h u n dr eds of ch ildr en w ith a n in sa tia ble a ppetite for in ter a ctive tech n ology, sch ools m u st com e u p w ith r u les a n d pr ocedu r es to sa fe gu a r d th e sch ool a s well a s th e u ser s th em -selves. Alth ou gh IT pr ovides tr em en dou s lea r n in g oppor tu n ities for ch ildr en , th e da n -ger s pr esen ted by u n r estr icted a ccess to a ll th e poten tia ls cou ld pr ove detr im en ta l.

IT policy is defin ed a s r u les a n d r e gu la tion s th a t m a xim ize con dition s u n der w h ich IT is u tilized wh ile m in im izin g th e a ssocia ted r isk s. IT policy r eflectin g best pr a ctices h ave sever a l ch a r a cter istics. IT policy in effective sch ools is com pr eh en sive, cover in g r u les r e ga r din g th e u se of com pu ter s, dos a n d don ’ts in com pu ter la bs, a n d th e con sequ en ces of n on com plia n ce.

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th e N et a m a jor con cer n to a dm in istr a tor s. Th er efor e, IT policy m u st be r evised

con sta n tly to r eflect n ew developm en ts. Th ir d, IT policy in effective sch ools is essen tia lly edu ca tion a l. IT policy sh ou ld n ot be a m er e collection of pr oh ibitive r u les bu t sh ou ld be a m ea n s of pr ovidin g pr oa ctive str a te gies to cu ltiva te positive a ttitu des in u ser s. IT policy is u sed for edu ca tion a l pu r poses to en h a n ce stu den ts’ k n ow ledge of r u les gover n in g h u m a n socia l in ter a ction s on a n d off th e N et. Fou r th , IT policy in effective sch ools is ch ild-cen ter ed. Policies a r e developed for th e sole pu r pose of pr otectin g stu den ts a n d en h a n cin g th eir k n ow ledge. La stly, IT policy in th ese sch ools is a pr odu ct of join t effor ts. Stu den ts, pa r en ts, a n d sch ool lea der s a ll pa r ticipa te in developin g th eir policies. In th is w ay, ever yon e ow n s th e policy, a n d ever yon e u n der sta n ds th e pr oblem th a t ea ch policy sta tem en t is a ttem pt-in g to pr even t.

Conclusion and recommendations

Th er e is defin itely a lea der sh ip dim en sion to in for m a tion tech n ology m a n a gem en t in K-12 sch ools. Bu t th e lea der sh ip dim en sion in th is sector h a s been less em ph a sized or discu ssed in th e liter a tu r e. Yet, tech n ology in sch ools wou ld r em a in poor ly a dopted u n less a str on g lea der sh ip is pr ovided to IT in itia tives. With over a deca de of sch ools’ exper im en ta tion w ith m icr ocom pu ter s, th e field is r ipe for r esea r ch er s’ a n d edu ca tor s’ sea r ch for best pr a ctices. Sch ool lea der s in ter ested in best pr a ctices a r e, h owever, lim ited by th e sca n ty liter a tu r e on IT in sch ools. Wr iter s h ave been con cer n ed pr im a r ily w ith th e pr escr iptive a n d descr iptive im pa cts of tech n ology on edu ca tion in gen er a l a n d th e r eleva n ce of tech n ology to specifi c cu r r icu lu m deliver y. In deed, sch ool lea der s h ave lim ited r esou r ces a t th eir disposa l; h en ce, th e n eed for a n a r ticle th a t pr esen ts in sigh ts of h ow sch ool lea der s m ay or ga n ize th eir IT or eva lu a te th eir exist-in g system .

Th e m odel pr esen ted in th is a r ticle is a cu l-m in a tion of tech n ology a u dits of l-m a n y sch ool or ga n iza tion s. Th e str en gth of th is m odel lies in its com pr eh en siven ess in cover in g IT issu es a n d its pr a ctica l u sefu ln ess to sch ool lea der s wh o a r e in ter ested in ta k in g th eir IT m a n a ge-m en t to a n oth er level of excellen ce.

Sch ool lea der s in ter ested in excellen ce in IT m a n a gem en t sh ou ld pay a tten tion to th e a ccess r a te of th eir u ser s. Access to IT m u st be defin ed br oa dly to in clu de a diver se body of u ser s. Lea der sh ip pr om ise is essen tia l for effective IT m a n a gem en t. Sch ool lea der s ca n n o lon ger a ffor d to r em a in a loof a n d dele ga te a ll IT in itia tives to th eir tech n ica l per son n el.

Com pr eh en sive a n d system a tic pla n n in g sh ou ld dr ive IT in itia tives in sch ools. Th e cu r r en t pr a ctice, wh er eby IT a ctivities a r e dr iven by gr a n t seek er s, ca n n ot be deem ed a ppr opr ia te.

Sta ff developm en t sh ou ld be con tin u ou s a n d in dividu a lized. In vestm en t in tea ch er s’ a n d sta ff ’s com pu ter k n ow ledge a n d sk ills is a w ise in vestm en t for sch ools. Tech n ica l su p-por t m u st r espon d pr om ptly to u ser s’ n eeds in K-12 sch ools. User s’ a tten tion spa n is sh or t a t th is level a n d even sh or ter du r in g cla ss lesson s; th er efor e, sch ools n eed to sea r ch for a cr ea tive w ay to r espon d im m edia tely to u ser s’ r equ ests.

Acqu isition of h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e en ta ils m or e th a n a la st m in u te r u sh to th e com pu ter stor es. A pr ocu r em en t str a te gy m u st be pla n n ed, pu r ch a ses of h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e m u st be don e w ith fu ll a tten tion to system com pa tibility, th e IT system m u st fu lly su ppor t a n d en h a n ce in str u ction a l a ctivities a n d goa ls, a n d a r epla cem en t pr ocedu r e m u st be ca r efu lly th ou gh t ou t.

Sch ools sh ou ld a dopt a n a ppr opr ia te bu dget ph ilosoph y. Wh ile soft m on ey sh ou ld be sou gh t a n d obta in ed, effor ts sh ou ld be m a de to en su r e th a t a pa r ticu la r per cen ta ge of th e oper a tin g bu dget is r eser ved for IT. E ffective sch ools h ave a n expa n ded view of IT—a view th a t in clu des a tten tion to r oom con dition s a n d er gon om ics. In deed, sch ool lea der s h ave a cr itica l r ole to play if th ey a r e to en su r e th a t th eir sch ools a ch ieve a h igh er level of excel-len ce of in for m a tion tech n ology.

In closin g, sch ool lea der s wh o in ten d to be pr oa ctive w ith th eir IT m a n a gem en t pr a ctice sh ou ld fin d th e follow in g r ecom m en da tion s u sefu l:

• In a n in cr ea sin gly com petitive en vir on -m en t, a tten tion to th e tr en d w ith in th e in du str y is a pr u den t m a n a gem en t pr a ctice. Sch ool lea der s m u st u n der sta n d th a t th eir sch ools a r e in com petition w ith oth er sch ools for gr a n ts a n d in th eir str ivin g for excellen ce. Th er efor e, a tten tion to th e tr en d w ith in th e K12 sch ool sector is a w ise lea d -er sh ip str a te gy.

• Sch ool lea der s m u st expa n d th eir r ole in in flu en cin g a n d sh a pin g h ow IT im pa cts th eir sch ools. IT ca n n o lon ger be left in th e h a n ds of th e tech n ica l per son n el. Rea listic a n d str a te gic IT pr ogr ess en ta ils fu ll pa r tici-pa tion a n d com m itm en t of both th e sch ool lea der s, th e tech n ica l per son n el, a n d th e sch ool com m u n ity.

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Ste ve O. Mic hae l

sch ool lea der s sh ou ld str ive to a ch ieve. A system a tic m on itor in g of sch ool’s pr ogr ess w ith r espect to ea ch of th e elem en ts dis-cu ssed in th is a r ticle sh ou ld be u n der ta k en . • Th e idea l goa l for sch ool lea der s is to

becom e th e in du str y lea der, exper im en tin g w ith cu ttin g-edge tech n ology a n d, th er efor e, settin g th e pa ce for oth er s. Sch ool lea der s sh ou ld con du ct th eir ow n a u dit a n d com -pa r e th eir fin din gs w ith th e best pr a ctices discu ssed in th is a r ticle. Bu t lea der s sh ou ld str ive for th eir ow n cr ea tive a n d in n ova tive pr a ctices th a t m ay br in g ou r u n der sta n din g of best pr a ctices to a n oth er level.

• Sch ola r s a n d r esea r ch er s in th e fi eld of edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t sh ou ld focu s m or e a tten tion on sch ool pr a ctices r e ga r din g IT. Wr iter s sh ou ld docu m en t exem pla r y IT m a n a gem en t pr a ctices in sim ple, n on tech -n ica l la -n gu a ge a -n d i-n a w ay th a t w ill be ben eficia l to sch ool lea der s wh o h ave n o for m a l edu ca tion in com pu ter scien ce. Th e lea der sh ip dim en sion of in for m a tion tech -n ology is a -n im por ta -n t com po-n e-n t of IT m a n a gem en t th a t sh ou ld occu py th e in ter est of r esea r ch er s in th e fi eld of edu ca tion a l tech n ology.

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