Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue1.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 1 [1998] 2 8 –3 8 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

A version of this article was fi rst presented at the UCEA Conference, Louisville, Kentucky, USA

Reinventing school leadership – back to the future in

the UK?

Terry Creissen

Co lne Co mmunity Sc ho o l, Co lc he s te r, Es s e x, UK

Linda Ellison

Ce ntre fo r Le ade rs hip in Educ atio n and Training, Le e ds Me tro po litan Unive rs ity, Le e ds , UK

There have, over the last 15 years, been many UK govern-ment initiatives aimed at improving the leadership and management of schools but there has never been any compulsion to receive train-ing either before or after taking up post as a head-teacher (principal). Greater responsibilities at the school level have resulted in greater pressure from a wide range of sources, including govern-ment and the teaching profes-sion, for a more coherent approach to leadership and management development for both middle managers and for headteachers. Examines the initiatives which have been introduced in the last 15 years. Then discusses the need for and the development of the National Professional Qualifi cation for Headship (NPQH) which is being trialled and piloted across England and Wales from 1996-98.

Introduction

T h er e h ave, over t h e la s t 15 yea r s, b een m a n y UK gover n m en t in it ia t ives a im ed a t im p r ov -in g t h e lea d er s h ip a n d m a n a gem en t of sch ools bu t , u n lik e t h e sit u a t ion in t h e USA, t h er e h a s n ever b een a n y com p u ls ion t o r eceive t r a in in g eit h er b efor e or a ft er t a k in g u p p ost a s a h ea d t ea ch er (p r in cip a l).

T h er e is n ow m u ch w id er r es p on s ib ilit y a n d a ccou n t a b ilit y a t t h e s ch ool level t h r ou gh sit e-b a s ed m a n a gem en t in t h e for m of loca l m a n a gem en t of sch ools (LMS), gr a n t m a in -t a in ed s -t a -t u s (GM S) a n d -t h e ci-t y -t ech n ology colle ge (CTC) in it ia t ive. T h is h a s led t o p r es -su r e fr om a w id e r a n ge of sou r ces, in clu d in g t h e gover n m en t a n d t h e t ea ch in g p r ofes sion , for a m or e coh er en t a p p r oa ch t o lea d er s h ip a n d m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t for b ot h m id -d le m a n a ger s a n -d for h ea -d t ea ch er s. T h er e is a lso a r ecogn it ion t h a t t h e p os it ion of h ea d -t ea ch er is n o-t n ecess a r ily -t h e m os -t a p p r op r i-a t e for som e in t h e p r ofes sion . As Willii-a m s w r ot e:

T h e a s su m p t ion t h a t t h os e w h o a r e good t ea ch er s w ill a u t om a t ica lly b ecom e good h ea d s w ill b e even m or e d a n ger ou s t h a n it h a s b een in t h e p a st . Bot h t h e select ion of h ea d t ea ch er s, a n d t h e t r a in in g given t o t h em a n d ot h er s in sen ior m a n a gem en t p osit ion s, w ill n eed t o b e fa r m or e ca r efu lly p la n n ed a n d m or e sy s t em a t ica lly s t r u ct u r ed t h a n h a s b een t h e ca s e u p t o n ow (Coop er a n d Sh u t e, 1988, p. xi).

T h is a r t icle exa m in es t h e in it ia t ives w h ich h ave b een in t r od u ced in t h e la s t 15 yea r s a n d t h e n eed for a n d d evelop m en t of t h e N a t ion a l P r ofes s ion a l Qu a lifi ca t ion for H ea d s h ip (N P QH ) w h ich is b ein g t r ia lled a n d p ilot ed a cr os s E n gla n d fr om 1996 t o 1998.

The context of headship, 1981-96

In t h e ea r ly 1980s t h er e w er e in it ia t ives in som e a r ea s by w h ich som e fi n a n cia l d ecis ion -m a k in g p ow er s w er e d ele ga t ed t o sch ools bu t t h e bu lk of fi n a n cia l r es ou r cin g a n d s t a ffin g

p ow er s w er e con t r olled by t h e loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it ies (LE As). In s econ d a r y sch ools t h e cu r r icu lu m w a s fl exible for p u p ils a ged u p t o 14 bu t , t h er ea ft er, w a s d om in a t ed by t h e r eq u ir em en t s of t h e exa m in a t ion b oa r d s. In t h e p r im a r y sect or t h e cu r r icu lu m a n d a p p r oa ch t o cla ssr oom or ga n isa t ion w er e la r gely d et er m in ed a t t h e sch ool level a lt h ou gh som e LE As w er e m or e d ir ect ive t h a n ot h er s.

T h e 1986 E d u ca t ion Act a lt er ed t h e com p o-sit ion a n d op er a t ion of sch ool gover n in g b od ies bu t it w a s t h e 1988 E d u ca t ion Refor m Act (E RA) w h ich in t r od u ced LMS, GMS a n d CTCs, t h u s sign ifi ca n t ly a lt er in g r esp on sib ili-t ies a ili-t ili-t h e s ch ool level a n d , h en ce, ili-t h e r ole of t h e h ea d t ea ch er. Su b seq u en t le gis la t ion or t h e en a ct m en t of t h e Secr et a r y of St a t e’s r igh t s w h ich a r e en s h r in ed in E RA h ave ser ved t o st r en gt h en t h e r efor m s. T h e ch a n ges in clu d e: a n a t ion a l cu r r icu lu m ; n a t ion a l t est in g; t ea ch er a p p r a is a l (eva lu a -t ion ); si-t e-b a sed fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g in clu d in g r es p on sib ilit y for h ir in g a n d fi r in g st a ff; p er -p u p il fu n d in g a n d p a r en t a l ch oice lin k ed t o a ccou n t a b ilit y a t t h e s ch ool level for r esu lt s a n d va lu e for m on ey.

All s econ d a r y sch ools a n d m ost p r im a r y sch ools h ave n ow b een in sp ect ed by t ea m s of in sp ect or s a ccr ed it ed by t h e Office for St a n d a r d s in E d u ca t ion (OF STE D). Des p it e gov -er n m en t a n d m ed ia con c-er n a b ou t t h e q u a l-it y of t ea ch er s a n d of t ea ch in g, m ost lesson s in sp ect ed t h r ou gh t h e n a t ion a l sy st em h ave b een fou n d t o b e sa t isfa ct or y or b et t er.

Tea ch in g h a s m oved d u r in g t h is p er iod t o b ecom e a gr a d u a t e-en t r y p r ofession w it h t h e p h a sin g ou t of t h e Cer t ifi ca t e in E d u ca t ion . T h e r ole of t h e h ea d h a s b ecom e gr ea t er a n d m or e com p lex, t h er eby in cr ea sin g t h e n eed for a com p r eh en sive a n d con s ist en t t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m e.

The route to headship

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Te rry Cre is s e n and Linda Ellis o n

Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship – bac k to the future in the UK? Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8

sch ools. T h is t it le r efl ect s t wo s ign ifi ca n t fa ct or s :

1 H e/ s h e h a s, in a lm os t a ll ca s es, r is en gr a d -u a lly fr om cla s s r oom t ea ch er v ia m id d le m a n a ger s u ch a s h ea d of d e p a r t m en t or cu r r icu lu m co-or d in a t or a n d , in d eed , s t ill t ea ch es for p a r t of t h e w eek (u su a lly a ver y sm a ll p a r t in secon d a r y / h igh s ch ools bu t m os t of t h e t im e in ver y sm a ll p r im a r y / elem en t a r y sch ools ).

2 Alt h ou gh t h er e h a s b een a r a p id r is e in t h e m a n a ger ia l p a r t of t h e r ole, t h e cor e focu s is s t ill u s u a lly s een a s t h e lea d er of lea r n -in g – -in s t r u ct ion a l lea d er s h ip (Ca ldw ell a n d Sp in k s, 1992).

T h e h ea d t ea ch er n or m a lly h a s a fi r st d e gr ee bu t , in cr ea s in gly, esp ecia lly in t h e s econ d a r y sect or, h a s a m a st er s d e gr ee w h ich h a s b een ga in ed , oft en by a p a r t -t im e r ou t e, d u r in g t h e t ea ch in g ca r eer. T h e m a s t er s d e gr ee is oft en a n ME d or a n M A in E d u ca t ion a n d h a s a cu r r icu la r or p ed a gogica l s la n t . In cr ea sin gly, a s p ir in g h ea d s a r e st u dy in g for lea d er sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t q u a lifi ca t ion s s u ch a s MSc or M A or M BA in E d u ca t ion a l Lea d er s h ip a n d M a n a gem en t (Ad m in ist r a t ion ) or, in a few ca s es, t h e m or e exp en s ive op t ion of a gen er a l M BA in a bu sin ess sch ool.

In con t r a s t , t h e US p r in cip a l w ill n or m a lly h ave a m a s t er s d e gr ee in ed u ca t ion a l a d m in is t r a t ion a n d w ill h ave d ecid ed on a n a d m in -is t r a t ive r ole a s op p osed t o a t ea ch in g r ole q u it e ea r ly on . H e/ sh e m u s t h ave a n a d m in is-t r a is-t or ’s cer is-t ifi ca is-t e in a d d iis-t ion . H e/ s h e w ill u s u a lly m ove fr om p ost t o p os t m or e fr eq u en t ly t h a n in t h e UK in or d er t o ga in exp er ien ce a n d , oft en , t o en a ble h im / h er t o m ove on t o a sen ior r ole in t h e s ch ool d is t r ict . Qu a lifi ca t ion s a n d licen ces a r e t h e r ou t e t o t h e t op, r a t h er t h a n excellen ce in t h e cla s s -r oom .

Development opportunities,

1981-96

Funding for courses

T h e p a t t er n of on e-yea r s econ d m en t s t o cou r ses in h igh er ed u ca t ion (la r gely in t h e a r ea of cu r r icu lu m ) w h ich h a d b een com m on in t h e 1970s w a s r eject ed in favou r of a n u m -b er of s h or t er cou r ses. Gover n m en t -fu n d ed n a t ion a l st r a t e gies t o su p p or t h ea d t ea ch er a n d ot h er s en ior m a n a gem en t t r a in in g p r o-gr a m m es r es u lt ed in t h e on e-t er m t r a in in g op p or t u n it ies (OTTO) a s w ell a s b a s ic 20-d ay cou r ses. T h ese p r ogr a m m es w er e a t t en d ed by 11 p er cen t of h ea d s a n d d e p u t ies b et w een 1983 a n d 1988. T h er e w a s n o con s ist en cy a cr os s t h e cou n t r y in w h a t w a s cover ed by t h e cou r s es. An eva lu a t ion of on e of t h e fi r s t coh or t s of “OTTO” h ea d s w a s ca r r ied ou t by

H ellaw ell a n d con clu d ed t h a t s u ch a n op p or -t u n i-t y gave h ea d s -t h e ch a n ce -t o r efl ec-t “on t h e p a r t icu la r n a t u r e of t h e job of

h ea d t ea ch er a n d t h e in d iv id u a l’s p a r t icu la r w ay s of ca r r y in g ou t t h a t job ” (H ellaw ell, 1988, p. 229). H e con clu d ed t h a t t h e OTTO exp er ien ce con sid er a b ly a id ed t h e h ea d s t o m a n a ge t h em selves a n d ot h er s b et t er. Of t h ose in t er v iew ed , H ellaw ell n ot ed t h a t t h ey “felt ver y st r on gly t h a t on e lesson of t h e t er m for t h em w a s t h e n eed t o d ele ga t e m or e, a n d t h e t er m ’s exp er ien ce a p p ea r ed t o h ave given t h em gr ea t er self-con fi d en ce, in t h a t t h ey felt m or e a ble t o d o t h is” (H ellaw ell, 1988, p. 234). Maw (1984, p. 8) ou t lin ed con cer n s a b ou t t h e on e-t er m cou r ses, h igh ligh t in g con cer n over t h e “cen t r a lised p r on ou n cem en t s on p r e p a r a -t ion for h ea d sh ip ” w h ich “h ave con cen -t r a -t ed m or e on t h e p r ofession a l t h a n t h e m a n a ger ia l a sp ect s of t h e r ole”.

T h e sy st em of Gr a n t -r ela t ed In -ser v ice T r a in in g (GRIST) a n d , la t er, Loca l E d u ca t ion Au t h or it y T r a in in g Gr a n t s (LE ATGS) p r ov id ed goover n m en t fu n d in g ov ia t h e loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it ies (LE As) for s t a ff d evelop -m en t in a n u -m b er of a n n u a lly d et er -m in ed p r ior it y a r ea s. Ma n a gem en t t r a in in g (n ot ju st for h ea d s a n d d e p u t ies ) w a s a m a jor a r ea , fu n d ed a t £4 m illion in 1987-88 r isin g t o £10 m illion in 1990-91. T h is a m ou n t w a s su p p le-m en t ed a t LE A level in or d er t o q u a lify for t h e gr a n t s. LE ATGS w er e r e p la ced by Gr a n t s for E d u ca t ion Su p p or t a n d T r a in in g (GE ST), a ga in w it h m a n a gem en t t r a in in g a s a p r ior -it y ca t e gor y a n d w -it h t h e r eq u ir em en t on LE As t o con t r ibu t e a h igh er p er cen t a ge of t h e r esou r cin g t h a n p r ev iou sly. Wit h b ot h of t h ese in it ia t ives, t h e ea r m a r k in g of fu n d in g m ea n t t h a t t h e t r a in in g a ct u a lly d id t a k e p la ce w it h t h e m or e en ligh t en ed LE As a n d sch ools su p p lem en t in g t h e fu n d in g fr om ot h er sou r ces. Alt er a t ion s t o t h e GE ST fu n d -in g sy st em p r ov id ed for a ca t e gor y “sch ool effect iven ess” w h ich a llow ed for a m or e va r -ied r a n ge of a ct iv it ies; t h e r esu lt w a s t h a t m on ey cou ld b e u sed m or e cr ea t ively t h a n sim p ly on m a n a gem en t t r a in in g. Also, by t h is t im e, m u ch of t h e gr a n t h a d t o b e d ele ga t ed t o t h e sch ool level (a n d in GM sch ools it a ll r ea ch ed t h e s ch ools v ia SP G(D) – t h e Sp ecia l P u r p ose Gr a n t for d evelop m en t ). Ma n y sch ools sp en t less on m a n a gem en t d evelop -m en t a n d -m or e on eq u ip -m en t in or d er t o su p p lem en t t h e ca p it a t ion bu d get .

Coop er a n d Sh u t e (1988, p. 5) cr it icised t h e la ck of a coh er en t sy st em :

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Alt h ou gh h e w a s r efer r in g in p a r t icu la r t o GRIST p r ov ision , Willia m s’ com m en t cou ld b e a p p lied t o a ll a ct iv it y in t h is ca t e gor y :

… t r en d s in Gr a n t r ela t ed In ser v ice T r a in -in g (GRIST) a r e lik ely t o en cou r a ge a n a p p r oa ch t o h ea d t ea ch er t r a in in g t h a t con -cen t r a t es on t ech n iq u es a n d t ools of t h e t r a d e … Bu t r u n n in g a sch ool is su r ely m or e t h a n h av in g a lot of t ech n ica l sk ills … (Coop er a n d Sh u t e, 1988, p. xii)

The School M anagement Taskforce T h e Sch ool Ma n a gem en t Ta s k for ce (SMTF ) w a s s et u p on 1 J a n u a r y 1989 in or d er t o r e p or t on t h e p r ov ision for a n d n eed s of t h os e w it h r es p on sib ilit y for m a n a gem en t in sch ools, es p ecia lly s in ce t h e im p lem en t a t ion of t h e E d u ca t ion Refor m Act . Follow in g con su lt a t ion s, t h e m em b er s (la r gely h ea d t ea ch -er s or for m -er h ea d t ea ch -er s) p u t for w a r d a r a n ge of p r a ct ica l m ea su r es a n d su gges t ed h ow t h es e m igh t b e p r om ot ed a n d s u p p or t ed . T h ey r ecom m en d ed in d u ct ion a n d s u cces s ion p la n n in g for a ll levels of m a n a gem en t . T h ey p r op osed t h a t , for a ll levels of m a n a gem en t , d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies s h ou ld m ove fr om : • t u t or d ir ect ed ;

• off-s it e;

• p r ed et er m in ed t im es ; • t ea ch in g;

• p r ov id er -d et er m in ed ; • k n ow led ge a cq u is it ion ; t o:

• self-d ir ect ed ;

• sch ool-b a s ed (or n ea r ); • fl exible t im es ;

• d ist a n ce lea r n in g a n d s t u dy p a ck s ; • cu st om er -d r iven ;

• p er for m a n ce en h a n cem en t . T h ey con clu d ed t h a t :

• a lt h ou gh sp ecifi c d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies w er e n eed ed for h ea d s, t h ey s h ou ld n ot b e s een a s a gr ou p fa r r em oved fr om ever yon e els e bu t a s p a r t of t h e t ea m ;

• t h e h ea d s sh ou ld in t e gr a t e t h eir p er son a l d evelop m en t p la n s w it h t h e wor k of t h e s ch ool;

• t h e lin k w it h gover n or s is im p or t a n t ; • h ea d s n eed op p or t u n it ies t o v is it t h e w id er

p u blic a n d p r iva t e sect or a n d t o s t u dy w it h t h ose w h o wor k t h er e.

T h er e w a s n o w id e s u p p or t for t h e con ce p t of a s t a ff colle ge bu t , r a t h er, t h e Ta s k for ce r ec-om m en d ed r e gion a l su p p or t for s elf-d ir ect ed st u dy :

T h er e is lit t le su p p or t for t h e es t a blis h m en t of a for m a l n a t ion a l co-or d in a t in g b ody. T h e s er v ice h a s a clea r p r efer en ce for “b ot t om -u p ” loca l d evelop m en t (DE S, 1990, p. 21).

In a d d it ion , t h ey felt t h a t t h er e is lit t le s u p -p or t for t h e -p r od u ct ion of a d et a iled n a t ion a l

sy lla bu s for s ch ool m a n a gem en t t r a in in g (DE S, 1990, p. 27).

As a r es u lt of t h e r e p or t , a n u m b er of r e gion a l p r oject s w er e set u p a n d fu n d ed by t h e DE S a lt h ou gh m a n y h ave n ot h a d a m em o-r a ble im p a ct . On e a sp ect of DE S-fu n d ed r esea r ch w a s ca r r ied ou t by Bola m et a l. in t o t h e effect ive m a n a gem en t of sch ools. T h is p r oject fou n d t h a t “m a n y of t h e h ea d t ea ch er s in t h e sa m p le h a d lea d er s h ip q u a lit ies w h ich w en t b eyon d t ech n ica l m a n a ger ia l com p e-t en ce”, e-t h a e-t “a clea r v ision for e-t h e sch ool’s fu t u r e w a s im p or t a n t ”, a lt h ou gh t ea ch er s h a d h a d lit t le in volvem en t in t h is for m u la t ion , a n d t h a t “t ea m m a n a gem en t w a s a ch a r -a ct er ist ic fe-a t u r e in t h e s -a m p le” (DF E , 1993, p. 46). T h e r es ea r ch er s felt t h a t “a ll t h r ee b r oa d con clu sion s h ave con sid er a ble im p lica t ion s for t h e select ion a n d t r a in in g of h ea d -t ea ch er s”.

Am on g ot h er con clu sion s t h a t a r e r eleva n t t o t h is p a p er a r e:

• com m en t s a b ou t t h e la ck of effect iven ess of gover n or s;

• t h e im p or t a n ce of v is ion ;

• t h e im p or t a n ce of a n op en a n d p osit ive s ch ool clim a t e or cu lt u r e;

• t h e d esir a b ilit y of fi r m lea d er sh ip a lon g-s id e con g-su lt a t ion on p olicy ;

• t h e n eed for con s ist en cy b et w een t h e r h et or ic on va lu es a n d t h e r ea lit y ; • p er son a l a n d p r ofess ion a l va lu es lie a t t h e

h ea r t of ed u ca t ion a l lea d er sh ip in t h e self-m a n a gin g sch ool.

The headteacher mentoring scheme T h e Sch ool M a n a gem en t Ta sk for ce r ecog-n ised t h a t a sch ool-b a sed a p p r oa ch t o d evel-op m en t wou ld b e m or e d ifficu lt for t h e p er son “a t t h e t op ” of t h e sch ool a s t h ey h ave n o on e t o a ct a s a gu id e. T h e H ea d t ea ch er M en t or in g Sch em e w a s in t r od u ced in or d er t o over com e t h is p r oblem . T h is in volves t h e lin k in g of a n exp er ien ced a n d a n in exp er ien ced h ea d in a n a r ea so t h a t t h e for m er ca n gu id e t h e la t t er. T h e con ce p t of m en t or in g is n ow r ecogn ised t o b e va lu a ble a n d con t in u es in m a n y sch ools a t va r iou s ca r eer levels.

Appraisal

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d evelop m en t r a t h er t h a n on p er for m a n ce m a n a gem en t .

The National Educational Assessment Centre

T h e N a t ion a l E d u ca t ion a l Ass es sm en t Cen t r e (N E AC) w a s set u p u sin g a n a d a p t a t ion of t h e N a t ion a l As s ocia t ion of Secon d a r y Sch ool P r in cip a ls m od el for com p et en ce a ss es sm en t . It w a s u s ed by LE As a s a w ay of a s sess in g t h eir good d e p u t ies so t h a t t h ey cou ld t h en b e m en t or ed t ow a r d s h ea d sh ip. T h e sy st em h a s n ow b een ext en d ed t o cover m id d le m a n a ger s a n d , n ow t h a t fu n d in g h a s m oved aw ay fr om LE As t o sch ools, ch ea p er w ay s of ca r r y in g ou t t h e p r ocess h ave b een d evelop ed . T h e p r oces s is b ein g u sed for t h e a ss es s m en t com -p on en t in on e of t h e N P QH r e gion a l -p ilot sch em es.

The M anagement Charter Initiative (M CI) T h e MCI h a s b een in op er a t ion s in ce 1988 a n d it a im s t o set ou t st a n d a r d s of com p et en ce for occu p a t ion s a n d m a n a gem en t levels. T h e m od el p r ov id es ver y d et a iled s p ecifi ca t ion s of w h a t h a s t o b e d on e in a job a n d in clu d es st a t em en t s for ea ch elem en t of t h e s t a n d a r d a n d a r a n ge of cir cu m st a n ces in w h ich t h e com p et en t p er for m er m u s t b e a ble t o ca r r y ou t t h es e elem en t su b t a s k s. M CI Sen ior M a n -a gem en t St -a n d -a r d s (M-a n -a gem en t Ch -a r t er In it ia t ive, 1995, p. 6) a r e s t r u ct u r ed a s follow s :

Key p u r p ose sta tem en t: To d evelop a n d

im p lem en t st r a t e gies t o fu r t h er t h e or ga n isa -t ion ’s m is s ion .

T h e p er for m a n ce s t a n d a r d s a r e gr ou p ed in t o fou r m a in a r ea s of a ct ion :

1 Un d er s t a n d in g a n d in fl u en cin g t h e en v i-r on m en t .

2 Set t in g t h e s t r a t e gy a n d ga in in g com m it -m en t .

3 P la n n in g, im p lem en t in g a n d m on it or in g. 4 E va lu a t in g a n d im p r ov in g p er for m a n ce. Wit h in ea ch of t h e a r ea s t h er e a r e a n u m b er of u n it s, ea ch b ein g m a d e u p of m or e d et a iled elem en t s.

T h e m od el is b ot h logica l a n d s y s t em a t ic, a n d p r ov id es a com p r eh en sive gu id e for d evelop m en t a n d a s ses sm en t , bu t t h e n u m b er of elem en t s for a job com p et en ce is so d et a iled t h a t it m ay s eem t o a lea r n er t oo fr a gm en t ed a n d t o t a k e a lot of t im e for a s sess m en t . For exa m p le t h e MCI sp ecifi ca t ion for s en ior m a n a ger s com p r ises 33 elem en t s. T h e a p p r oa ch h a s b een cr it icised b eca u se it a s s u m es s t a t ic job s a n d a im s a t m in im a l s t a n d a r d s. It is seen a s in fl exible a n d p r e-s cr ip t ive, fa ilin g t o r ecogn ie-s e t h e d iver e-s it y of m a n a ger s ’ t a s k s a n d r oles, a n d m a n y b elieve t h a t is s eem s b et t er s u it ed t o m ea s u r in g com -p et en ce a t low er m a n a ger ia l levels. T h e

st a n d a r d s a r e p it ch ed a t t h r esh old p er for m a n ce a n d a r e les s a p p r op r ia t e for job sit u a t ion s w h er e k n ow led ge, a t t it u d es, a n d a u t on -om y t o m a k e d iscr et ion a r y d ecis ion s a r e p a r t of t h e job (see T r ot t er a n d E llison , p. 1997). Ar gu a b ly, it is im p os sib le t o m ea su r e m a n -a gem en t com p et en ce ob ject ively -a n d r eli-a bly in t h is fr a gm en t ed fa sh ion . T h e M CI gu id e-lin es h ave n ot b een ext en sively u sed in t h eir “p u r e” for m a lt h ou gh m a n y or ga n is a t ion s h ave a d a p t ed t h em .

Other provision

T h er e h a s a lso b een (a n d con t in u es t o b e) a w id e r a n ge of sh or t cou r s es fr om a r a n ge of p r ov id er s, b ot h fr om a t r a d it ion a l ed u ca t ion b a ck gr ou n d a n d fr om t h e n on -ed u ca t ion a l sect or s.

In a d d it ion , d u r in g t h is p er iod , m a n y h ea d s a n d d e p u t ies h ave b een en r olled on aw a r d -b ea r in g cou r s es (m ost ly p a r t -t im e) t h r ou gh t r a d it ion a l h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s (H E Is) a n d t h e Op en Un iver sit y.

The important role of the head

E v id en ce over t h e la st 20 yea r s h a s con sis-t en sis-t ly p oin sis-t ed sis-t o sis-t h e fa csis-t sis-t h a sis-t “sis-t h e m ossis-t im p or t a n t sin gle fa ct or in t h e s u cces s of t h ese sch ools is t h e q u a lit y of lea d er sh ip of t h e h ea d ” (DE S, 1975, p. 36). Sa m m on s et a l. (1995) h ave r ecen t ly colla t ed t h e r es ea r ch on effec-t ive sch ools a n d liseffec-t ed 11 in d ica effec-t or s w h ich ca n b e s u m m a r is ed a s follow s:

1 fi r m a n d p u r p os efu l p r ofess ion a l lea d er -sh ip ;

2 sh a r ed v ision a n d goa ls; 3 or d er ly lea r n in g en v ir on m en t ; 4 focu s on t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g; 5 w ell-or ga n is ed t ea ch in g; 6 h igh exp ect a t ion s; 7 p osit ive r ein for cem en t ; 8 m on it or in g p r ogr ess ;

9 st u d en t s ’ r igh t s a n d r esp on sib ilit ies; 10 h om e-sch ool p a r t n er sh ip s;

11 sch ools a s lea r n in g or ga n is a t ion s. T h is lis t ca n p r ov id e p a r t of t h e a gen d a for a n y p r ogr a m m e of h ea d sh ip p r e p a r a t ion or h ea d t ea ch er d evelop m en t .

The way forward

P r ior t o LMS sch ools w er e “h igh ly

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McMu lla n , 1995, p. 24). McH u gh a n d McM u l-la n a s ser t t h a t su ch a ch a n ge r eq u ir es “t h e a cq u is it ion a n d d evelop m en t of a r a n ge of sk ills h it h er t o ign or ed by t h os e con cer n ed w it h t ea ch er t r a in in g” (M cH u gh a n d M cM u l-la n , 1995, p. 24).

In a d d it ion t o t h e is su e of in ser v ice t r a in -in g, r es ea r ch -in t er v iew ees com m en t ed , w it h t h e b en efi t of h in d sigh t , on t h e p er ceived a dva n t a ges of p r e-a p p oin t m en t t r a in in g. It wou ld a p p ea r t h a t a t p r esen t , few, if a n y, p ot en t ia l h ea d t ea ch er s r eceive t r a in in g w h ich a d eq u a t ely p r e p a r es t h em for t h e n ew r esp on s ib ilit ies w h ich t h ey a s su m e on t h eir p r om ot ion t o p os it ion s of h ea d sh ip. T h u s, it is su gges t ed t h a t a sy st em a t ic a p p r oa ch b e a d op t ed t o t h e d evelop m en t of in d iv id u a ls w h o a sp ir e t o p osit ion s of h ea d sh ip. Su ch a n a p p r oa ch r eq u ir es t h e com m it m en t a n d s u p p or t of t h os e in volved in t h e for m u la t ion a n d im p lem en t a t ion of ed u ca t ion a l p olicy (McH u gh a n d McM u lla n , 1995, p. 33).

A sim ila r p lea for p r e-a p p oin t m en t t r a in in g is m a d e by t h e N a t ion a l Com m is sion on E d u -ca t ion w h ich n ot es “a r a t h er a d h oc sy st em of h ea d t ea ch er p r e p a r a t ion ” a n d “h a p h a za r d p r a ct ices in t h e s elect ion of h ea d t ea ch er s in t h is cou n t r y ” (N a t ion a l Com m is sion on E d u -ca t ion , 1993, p. 230).

Wa r n in gs a b ou t t h e focu s of su ch t r a in in g h ave b een given by Willia m s (Coop er a n d Sh u t e, 1988, p. xii) w h o w r ot e t h a t “t h ose w h o r u n s ch ools effect ively n eed t o u n d er s t a n d w h a t t h ey a r e d oin g a s w ell a s k n ow h ow t o d o it !”, a n d by Gla t t er :

T h e d a n ger of con cen t r a t in g on sk ills a n d t ech n iq u es is t h a t t h is w ill r ein for ce t h e v iew of t h e a d m in is t r a t or a s p r im a r ily a t ech n icia n … su ch d ee p er u n d er st a n d in g, n o les s t h a n s k ills a n d t ech n iq u es, m u st b e t r a n sm it t ed t h r ou gh t h e m ed iu m of con cr et e a d m in is t r a t ive s et t in gs r a t h er t h a n p r ed om -in a n t ly “cla ss r oom ” s et t -in gs (Gla t t er, 1992, p. 9-10).

F u r t h er su p p or t for s ch oolb a s ed d evelop m en t ca m e fr om t h e Ta s k for ce w h ich con -clu d ed t h a t :

Lea r n in g fr om exp er ien ce m ea n s lea r n in g on t h e job a s w ell a s lea r n in g a b ou t t h e job … p os it ive exp er ien ces of su ccess fu l m a n -a gem en t -a r e t h e b -a ck b on e of p er son -a l d evel-op m en t (DE S, 1990, p. 25).

Willia m s (Coop er a n d Sh u t e, 1988 p. xii) p r o-p osed on -t h e-job t r a in in g a n d a w id e r a n ge of cou r s es s o t h a t p r os p ect ive h ea d s cou ld lea r n a b ou t t h e u n d er ly in g p r in cip les of sch ool lea d er s h ip a n d m eet ot h er s :

…t h e s in gle “st a ff colle ge” a p p r oa ch m ay r esu lt in on e r ecogn ised a p p r oa ch t o lea d er -s h ip w h ich r i-sk -s lay in g t h e d ea d h a n d of a s in gle or t h od oxy on a ll ou r sch ools (Coop er a n d Sh u t e, 1988, p. xii).

Bola m et a l. com m en t ed on t h e con t en t of a n y h ea d sh ip d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m e:

… t h e v it a lly im p or t a n t con t r ibu t ion of s u ch fa ct or s a s lea d er s h ip, v is ion , cu lt u r e, colla b -or a t ive d ecis ion -m a k in g a n d t h e lik e s h ou ld su r ely fi gu r e p r om in en t ly in t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies … t h ey s h ou ld a ls o in for m t h e on -t h e-job d evelop m en t

p r ogr a m m es a n d a p p r a is a l s ch em es w it h in ea ch sch ool a n d LE A … t h e fi n d in gs s h ou ld b e t a k en in t o a ccou n t in t h e for m u la t ion of com p et en ces for h ea d t ea ch er s a n d ot h er sch ool m a n a ger s (DF E , 1993, p. 129).

Coop er a n d Sh u t e (1988, p. 7) go b eyon d m ost a u t h or s in p r op osin g t r a in in g for t h ose in p ost a n d t h ose a sp ir in g t o h ea d sh ip w it h va r iou s or ga n isa t ion s co-op er a t in g t o offer t r a in in g t ow a r d s a cer t ifi ca t e. T h is p r ocess wou ld b e over seen by a b ody t o set st a n d a r d s, r ev iew ca n d id a t es, iss u e t h e cer t ifi ca t es a n d a ccr ed it p r ov id er s:

Wh a t w e p r op os e is t h e cer t ifi ca t ion by a n officia l b ody of t h e p r e p a r a t ion a n d cr ed en -t ia ls of sen ior s ch ool s -t a ff, -t es -t ify in g -t o -t h e qu a lifi ca tion s of th ose wh o lea d th e sch ools of Gr ea t Br it a in (Coop er a n d Sh u t e, 1988, p. 4).

Alt h ou gh t h er e a r e som e con fl ict in g p er sp ec-t ives, ec-t h e k ey p oin ec-t s r ela ec-t in g ec-t o a p r ogr a m m e of p r e p a r a t ion for h ea d s h ip seem t o b e: • a sign ifi ca n t sch ool-b a sed elem en t ; • u n d er st a n d in g a s w ell a s d oin g; • t h e im p or t a n ce of v ision ; • a sy s t em a t ic a p p r oa ch ; • a focu s on lea d er sh ip.

Wh ile t h er e is a con sen su s t h a t som e for m a l p r e p a r a t ion is r eq u ir ed , t h er e is lit t le gen er a l su p p or t for :

• a st a ff colle ge;

• a n a t ion a l cu r r icu lu m ; • r igid n a t ion a l st a n d a r d s; • a p u r ely t h eor et ica l cou r se.

An y s y st em of h ea d s h ip p r e p a r a t ion m u st b e seen in t h e con t ext of a con t in u u m of st a ff d evelop m en t :

T h e u lt im a t e a im of s t a ff d evelop m en t is t o im p r ove t h e q u a lit y of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n -in g. T h e im m ed ia t e a im is t o im p r ove t h e p er for m a n ce of t h os e w it h t ea ch in g a n d m a n a gem en t r es p on s ib ilit ies (Bola m , 1987, p. 2).

Teacher Training Agency (TTA)

T h is w a s es t a blish ed in Se p t em b er 1994 w it h t h e follow in g k ey fu n ct ion s:

• t h e fu n d in g of t ea ch er t r a in in g; • t h e a ccr ed it a t ion of p r ov id er s of in it ia l

t r a in in g for sch ool t ea ch er s;

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• ca r r y in g ou t or com m iss ion in g r es ea r ch w it h a v iew t o im p r ov in g t h e s t a n d a r d s of t ea ch in g a n d t ea ch er t r a in in g (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, u n d a t ed , p. 7).

It seem ed a n a t u r a l ext en s ion of t h e wor k of t h e TTA t h a t t h er e sh ou ld b e a n a t ion a l fr a m ewor k for a con t in u ou s s t r ea m of t r a in -in g a n d d evelop m en t for t ea ch er s t h r ou gh in it ia l t ea ch er t r a in in g, exp er t su b ject t ea ch er, exp er t su b ject lea d er t o exp er t sch ool lea d er. Wh ile wor k in g w it h in it s or igin a l fr a m ewor k , t h e TTA n ow con t r ols t h e fu n d in g of in -s er v ice t ea ch er t r a in in g (in clu d in g t h a t in u n iver sit ies ).

As fa r a s h ea d s h ip t r a in in g a n d d evelop -m en t is con cer n ed , t h e TTA h a s a lr ea dy la u n ch ed (in Se p t em b er 1995) H E ADLAM P (H ea d t ea ch er s’ Lea d er s h ip a n d M a n a gem en t P r ogr a m m e). T h is is a n a t ion a l in it ia t ive t o p r ov id e t r a in in g in t h eir n ew r ole for n ew ly a p p oin t ed h ea d t ea ch er s in t h eir fi r s t t wo yea r s. For t h is, t h e TTA h a s licen sed a ll t h ose p r ov id er s w h o a p p lied a n d OF STE D in s p ect s t h e r esu lt in g p r ov ision . To d a t e m a n y licen sed p r ov id er s h ave n ot ca r r ied ou t a n y a ct iv it y w h ile LE As a n d on e or t wo n a t ion a l con s or t ia h ave ca r r ied ou t t h e bu lk of t h e wor k .

As p a r t of t h e con t in u u m of p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t , t h e TTA w a s a sk ed t o d evelop a q u a lifi ca t ion for a s p ir in g h ea d t ea ch er s. T h e t h en Secr et a r y of St a t e for E d u ca t ion a n d E m p loy m en t exp r es s ed t h e gover n m en t ’s w is h es t h u s:

I h ave in m in d som et h in g q u it e n ew – a r ecogn is ed p r ofess ion a l q u a lifi ca t ion for h ea d sh ip w h ich w ill b e r u n a n d a s sessed u n d er r igor ou s n a t ion a l s t a n d a r d s (Sh e p -h a r d , 1995, p. 2).

The National Professional

Qualification for Headship (NPQH)

T h e q u a lifi ca t ion is a im ed a t p r ov id in g a s p ir -in g h ea d t ea ch er s w it h t h e s k ills a n d a b ilit ies t o t a k e u p t h e lea d er s h ip of a s ch ool. It is a lso in t en d ed t o b e a h igh q u a lit y m ea s u r e for sch ool gover n or s a s a n a s su r a n ce t h a t t h os e w it h t h e q u a lifi ca t ion h ave t h e levels of com -p et en ce n eed ed for t h e good lea d er s h i-p of t od ay ’s s ch ools :

We in t en d t o est a blis h a h igh q u a lit y n a t ion a l q u a lifi ca t ion w h ich … p r ov id es a n a ss u r a n ce t o gover n or s a n d ot h er s t h a t n ew ly a p p oin t ed h ea d t ea ch er s h ave t h e n eces sa r y fou n d a t ion of s ch ool lea d er sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t k n ow led ge, u n d er st a n d in g a n d sk ills t o p er for m su ccessfu lly a ga in s t a n a t ion a l st a n d a r d (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1995, p. 1).

T h e q u a lifi ca t ion is b ein g in t r od u ced t o t r y t o give som e m ea su r e a s t o t h e p ot en t ia l p er for -m a n ce of t h e a sp ir a n t h ea d t ea ch er w h en t a k in g u p a p ost in a n ew sch ool. Su ch p er for -m a n ce is -m or e t h a n -m er e efficien t -m a n a ge-m en t ; it is “t h e con sist en t a b ilit y t o p r od u ce r esu lt s over p r olon ged p er iod s of t im e a n d in a va r iet y of a s sign m en t s” (Dr u ck er, 1989, p. 156). Wh ile t h e N P QH ca n n ot r e p la ce t h e in t er v iew or gu a r a n t ee t h a t t h e h old er w ill b e su ccess fu l in h ea d sh ip, t h e q u a lifi ca t ion ca n give som e a ssu r a n ce t o gover n in g b od ies t h a t t h e ca n d id a t es h ave m et a level of com p et en ce w h ich d em on s t r a t es t h a t t h ey h ave t h e p ot en -t ia l for h ea d s h ip. N o-t on ly w ill -t h e a ssu r a n ce b e on a job -sp ecifi c or loca l level, bu t it w ill b e a m ea su r e t h a t gover n or s ca n a p p ly u sin g n a t ion a l com p a r ison s b eca u se t h ose w it h t h e q u a lifi ca t ion s w ill h ave p r oven ev id en ce t h a t t h ey m eet t h e cr it er ia for a sp ir a n t h ea d t ea ch er s. Gover n or s ca n t h en b e a s su r ed t h a t ca n -d i-d a t es n ot fi t for t h e sin gle m ost im p or t a n t job in t h e sch ool ca n n ot a t t a in t h e q u a lifi ca -t ion of -t h e N P QH .

T h e TTA b elieves t h a t it h a s id en t ifi ed clea r ob ject ives for t h e q u a lifi ca t ion w h ich sh ou ld : • b e t a r get ed on sch ool im p r ovem en t ; • en su r e t h a t on ly t h ose r ea dy for h ea d sh ip

ga in t h e q u a lifi ca t ion ;

• b e b a sed on a gr eed n a t ion a l st a n d a r d s; • s ign a l r ea d in ess for h ea d s h ip bu t n ot

r e p la ce t h e select ion p r ocess;

• p r ov id e a focu s for a sp ir in g h ea d t ea ch er s’ con t in u in g p r ofession a l d evelop m en t ; • p r ov id e a b a selin e fr om w h ich n ew ly

a p p oin t ed h ea d t ea ch er s ca n con t in u e t o d evelop t h eir lea d er sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t a b ilit ies (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996a , p. 2).

For t h e fi r st t im e, t h ose look in g t o h ea d sh ip a s a ca r eer p r ogr es sion h ave a clea r set of gu id elin es d em on s t r a t in g t h e com p et en ces t h ey w ill b e exp ect ed t o d em on st r a t e p r ior t o t a k in g u p h ea d s h ip. T h e q u a lifi ca t ion is n ot com p u lsor y (a lt h ou gh t h e n ew La b ou r Gov -er n m en t h a s p r op osed t h a t it sh ou ld b e) bu t it is h op ed t h a t m ost p eop le seek in g t h eir fi r st h ea d sh ip w ill look t o t h e q u a lifi ca t ion a s a sen sible p r e p a r a t ion for t h e d em a n d s of t h e job. T h e q u a lifi ca t ion is n ot in t en d ed t o r e p la ce t h e n eed for m en t or t r a in in g a ft er a p p oin t m en t , n or d oes it r e p la ce t h e n eed for fu r t h er t r a in in g in t h e ea r ly yea r s of t a k in g u p a fi r s t h ea d sh ip (w h ich h a s r ecen t ly b een su p p or t ed by t h e H E ADLAMP sch em e).

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q u a lifi ca t ion w ill h ave t o a d d r es s t h e is su e of lea d er s h ip t r a in in g. T h e N P QH a lso p la ces gr ea t em p h a sis on t h e a ss es s m en t of s k ills a n d a b ilit ies w it h in t h e con t ext of sch ool im p r ovem en t . T h is m od el wou ld b e

su p p or t ed by Covey (1992) w h o s ees t h e a p p li-ca t ion of com p et en ces t h r ou gh p r in cip les a cr os s d iffer en t sit u a t ion s a s a fu n d a m en t a l fea t u r e of s en ior m a n a gem en t :

Wit h ou t u n d er s t a n d in g t h e p r in cip le of a given t a s k , p eop le b ecom e in ca p a cit a t ed w h en t h e s it u a t ion ch a n ges a n d d iffer en t p r a ct ices a r e r eq u ir ed t o b e su ccess fu l (Covey, 1992, p. 25).

Th e N P QH is differ en t fr om com peten ce-ba sed m od els in t wo d ist in ct w ay s. F ir s t ly, it a im s t o m ea s u r e p ot en t ia l a n d , a s s u ch , ca n n ot r es or t t o a t ick -b ox s t y le of exp er ien ces r ecor d ed by t h e in d iv id u a l. Secon d ly, in look in g a t a ccr ed -it in g p a s t p er for m a n ce, -it p la ces em p h a sis n ot ju s t on exp er ien ce bu t a ch ievem en t r ele-va n t t o im p r ov in g p u p il p er for m a n ce.

T h er e a r e lim it a t ion s t o t h e u s e of a com p e-t en ce-b a s ed m od el for e-t h e p r ofes sion a l q u a lifi ca t ion bu t m ea s u r in g a n in d iv id u a l’s p er for -m a n ce a ga in st t h e gen er a lly a cce p t ed

d em a n d s of t h e job t h r ou gh a ca r efu l a n a ly sis of t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s r ole m u s t lea d u s t o a b et t er s t a t e of a ffa ir s t h a n a d ecla r a t ion t h a t t h e t a sk is n ot p oss ible. Wh ile t h e u s e of com -p et en ces ca n n ot b e fl aw less, it ca n for m a ver y u s efu l a n d im p or t a n t gu id e t ow a r d s t h e r eq u ir ed levels of sk ills, k n ow led ge a n d a b ili-t ies for ili-t h e im p r oved lea d er sh ip of sch ools. Iili-t is in t h is con t ext t h a t t h e q u a lifi ca t ion is fr a m ed .

It is a ls o im p or t a n t t o r ecogn is e t h a t t h e com p et en ces r eq u ir ed of h ea d t ea ch er s w ill a lt er over t im e. T h e r ole of h ea d t ea ch er s h a s ch a n ged s ign ifi ca n t ly over t h e p a st d eca d e in t er m s of t h e va r y in g in fl u en ces a n d in cr ea sed a ccou n t a b ilit y p la ced in t h eir h a n d s :

Sch ool a d m in ist r a t ion n ow t a k es p la ce in a n in cr ea s in gly t u r bu len t , p olit ica lly ch a r ged en v ir on m en t ; blu n t ly, r u n n in g s ch ools h a s b ecom e a t ou gh job w h ich in volves m or e k n ow led ge a n d sk ill t h a n it d id even a d eca d e a go (Bea r e et a l., 1989, p. xi).

T h e N P QH m u s t en su r e t h a t ca n d id a t es ca n -n ot s im p ly p r ese-n t a “p u blic p er for m a -n ce of com p et en ce” bu t m u st t r u ly b e a ble t o d em on -st r a t e t h eir a b ilit y t o a ch ieve t h e s k ills level r eq u ir ed of t h e q u a lifi ca t ion eit h er t h r ou gh p a s t p er for m a n ce or t h r ou gh sim u la t ion s d esign ed t o t es t p ot en t ia l.

T h is is com p lica t ed by a n u m b er of fa ct or s. T h e m os t s ign ifi ca n t is t h e cu lt u r a l con t ext of t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s job w it h in t h e sch ool en v i-r on m en t . It foi-r m s a n im p oi-r t a n t d im en s ion t o t h e u n d er s t a n d in g of t h e a p p lica t ion of t h e s t a n d a r d s s et ou t in t h e q u a lifi ca t ion . As s u ch , ca r efu l r ecogn it ion of t h e im p a ct of t h e

cu lt u r a l con t ext in t h e wor k in g en v ir on m en t m u st b e a sign ifi ca n t fea t u r e of t h e a ssess-m en t of t h e a sp ir a n t h ea d t ea ch er in t h e d evel-op m en t of h is/ h er level of com p et en ce w it h in t h e sy st em .

T h e n ew q u a lifi ca t ion s et s ou t t o k ee p a clea r focu s on t h e cor e p u r p ose of h ea d sh ip w h ich in volves est a blish in g t h e st r a t e gic d ir ect ion a n d lea d er sh ip of t h e or ga n isa t ion . In t h is r esp ect , it t r ies t o a ss ess t h e p ot en t ia l of t h e ca n d id a t e in b r in gin g a b ou t t h is a sp ect of a h ea d t ea ch er ’s r ole t h r ou gh t h e d em on st r a t ion of t h e a p p lica t ion of t h eor et ica l con -ce p t s t o t h e p r a ct ica l sit u a t ion . It h a s b een in d ica t ed a b ove t h a t t h e com p lexit y of t h e t a sk is n ot m a d e ea sier by cu lt u r a l a n d con -t ex-t u a l issu es. T h is -t a k es i-t b eyon d -t h e lim i-t s of m a st er s d e gr ee t y p e p r ogr a m m es a n d b eyon d t h e com p et en ce-b a sed a ss essm en t s of N VQ t o a q u a lifi ca t ion w h ich t r ies t o p u ll ou t t h e b est of b ot h in t h a t it focu ses on t h e a p p li-ca t ion a n d t h e p ot en t ia l a p p lili-ca t ion of t h e n ecessa r y s k ills a n d a b ilit ies r eq u ir ed for h ea d sh ip in t h e sch ool set t in g.

F u lla n (1985) a r gu es t h a t h ea d s m u st a d d r ess fou r issu es of p r ocess t o give m ea n -in g t o effect ive sch ool n eed s. T h ese, h e cla im s, a r e d esign ed t o en h a n ce t h e et h os a n d im a ge of t h e sch ool a n d a r e fu n d a m en t a l in b r in gin g a b ou t p u r p osefu l a n d effect ive ch a n ge. H e list s t h em a s:

• a feel for t h e p r ocess on t h e p a r t of lea d er -sh ip ;

• a gu id in g va lu e sy st em ;

• in t en s e in t er a ct ion a n d com m u n ica t ion ; a n d

• colla b or a t ive p la n n in g a n d im p lem en t a -t ion … (F u lla n , 1985, p. 499).

H is t er m in ology of h av in g a “feel” for t h e p r ocess of lea d er sh ip em p h a sises t h e in t a n gi-ble m ea su r em en t of effect ive lea d er sh ip in a con ven t ion a l a n d for m a l p r ocess. J u st a s J en k in s (1991, p. 3) r em in d s u s of t h e fa ct t h a t “t r a d it ion a l m od els of lea d er sh ip a r e in ca -p a ble of m eet in g t h e ch a llen ges sch ools a r e fa cin g”, s o t oo w e fi n d t h a t con ven t ion a l m od els of a ss essm en t a r e in a p p r op r ia t e t o m ea -su r e t h e cu r r en t a b ilit y or p ot en t ia l of t h e N P QH ca n d id a t e t o d em on s t r a t e effect ive lea d er sh ip. Yet , lea d er sh ip of t h e sch ool for con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t is a t t h e h ea r t of t h is q u a lifi ca t ion . It h a s t o b e m ea su r ed by it s im p a ct a n d effect on ot h er s, a s d oes t h e over -a ll effect iven ess of t h e c-a n d id -a t e in b r in gin g a b ou t t h e r igh t cu lt u r e t o p r om ot e im p r ove-m en t .

T h er e a r e, t h er efor e, fou r issu es t o b e a d d r ess ed by t h e n ew q u a lifi ca t ion :

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2 T h e t r a in in g a sp ect m u s t focu s on t h e n eed s of t h e in d iv id u a l w it h ea ch ca n d i-d a t e v iew ei-d in t h e con t ext w it h in w h ich t h ey a r e op er a t in g if t h e q u a lifi ca t ion is t o p r ed ict p ot en t ia l in a n eq u it a ble a n d m ea n in gfu l m a n n er.

3 It is im p or t a n t t o r ecogn is e t h a t t h er e a r e oft en con t ext s w h ich a r e in a p p r op r ia t e for t h e good p r e p a r a t ion of p ot en t ia l h ea d -t ea ch er s – n a m ely, p oor sch ools or -t h os e w it h u n s u p p or t ive h ea d s ; m ea n s t o over -com e s u ch h u r d les w ill b e r eq u ir ed t h r ou gh t h e fl exible a p p lica t ion of t h e q u a lifi ca t ion if t h os e ca n d id a t es a r e n ot t o b e d en ied a ccess t o t h e N P QH .

4 As s es s in g t h e com p et en ces m u st b e u n d er -t a k en in a cos-t -effec-t ive m a n n er s o -t h a -t t h er e is n o b ia s in favou r of t h e fu n d in g of t h e a s sess m en t p r ocess t o t h e d et r im en t of t h e t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t n eed s of a s p ir in g h ea d t ea ch er s.

The consultations

An ext en s ive con su lt a t ive exer cis e w a s ca r -r ied ou t by t h e Tea ch e-r T -r a in in g Agen cy. T h is in volved a t wop h a se w r it t en con s u lt a -t ion p r oces s a s w ell a s a s er ies of r e gion a l con fer en ces. T h e TTA Boa r d , t h e CP D Com -m it t ee a n d t h e N P QH Adv isor y Gr ou p s p en t a con s id er a ble t im e on t h e p r op os a ls.

In or d er t o b e gin t h e p r ocess of est a blis h in g a n ew p r ofes sion a l q u a lifi ca t ion , it w a s d ecid ed t h a t r e p r es en t a t ives of t h e ed u ca t ion sy s t em s h ou ld b e a s k ed t h eir in it ia l v iew s on t h e s t a n d a r d s t h a t t h e TTA sh ou ld b e look in g for in a ca n d id a t e s eek in g h ea d s h ip. T h is p r oved t o b e a ver y in for m a t ive p r ocess. A ser ies of iss u es w a s r a ised a n d s om e gu id a n ce a b ou t es sen t ia l a sp ect s of t h e q u a lifi ca t ion w er e s u gges t ed . T h ose r es p on s es w er e con s id -er ed in d et a il by t h e N a t ion a l Adv isor y Gr ou p for t h e N a t ion a l P r ofes sion a l Qu a lifi ca t ion for H ea d s h ip (NAGN P QH ).

At t h is st a ge, t h e level of s u p p or t for t h e N P QH w a s w id esp r ea d , yet t h er e w a s a s t r on g v iew t h a t t h e q u a lifi ca t ion s h ou ld b e of a h igh q u a lit y. In a d d it ion t o t h is, s ever a l r es p on s es h igh ligh t ed t h e lin k b et w een t h e p r ofes sion a l a n d t h e p er s on a l q u a lit ies r eq u ir ed in s u c-ces sfu l h ea d s h ip :

T h e q u a lifi ca t ion s h ou ld r ein for ce t h e im p or t a n ce of ed u ca t ion a l lea d er sh ip, h ave r igou r a n d b e b a s ed on n a t ion a l st a n d a r d s. Ma n y r esp on d en t s em p h a s ise t h e n eed for cogn it ive a n d p er s on a l ca p a b ilit ies a s w ell a s p er for m a n ce com p et en ces (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 1).

Is su es r e ga r d in g t h e p er s on a l a n d t h e con t ex-t u a l a s p ecex-t s of ex-t h e a s p ir a n ex-t h ea d w er e ech oed in t h e d is cu s s ion s of NAGN P QH w h ich exp r ess ed con cer n t h a t t h os e a s p ir a n t h ea d s w er e h a r d t o id en t ify w h en wor k in g in p oor sch ools.

T h e m a in com p on en t s w er e for m u la t ed a n d a t en t a t ive list d evelop ed in clu d in g n ew r efer -en ces t o t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w e-en t h e h ea d a n d t h e gover n in g b ody. Ap a r t fr om t h e con t en t of t h e q u a lifi ca t ion in t er m s of t h e com -p et en ces t o b e a ssessed , fu r t h er con cer n s focu sed on t h e fu n d in g a r r a n gem en t s, a ccess for ca n d id a t es a n d t h e con t ext of t h is q u a lifi ca t ion in t h e r a n ge of p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t a ct iv it ies for t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession . E a ch of t h ese issu es w a s d iscu ssed fu r t h er in t h e NAGN P QH .

T h e b a la n ce b et w een t r a in in g a n d a ssess-m en t is a fi n e on e in t h a t t h e p u r p ose of t h e q u a lifi ca t ion is t o p r e p a r e a s p ir a n t h ea d -t ea ch er s b e-t -t er for -t h e n ex-t s-t e p in p r om o-t ion a s w ell a s a sses sin g t h eir p ot en t ia l for su c-cess. T h er e w a s som e a n xiet y a b ou t t h e goa ls b ein g u n a t t a in a ble or t h a t s om et h in g wou ld b e m issed . It w a s d ecid ed t h a t t h er e wou ld b e a fu ll n a t ion a l con su lt a t ion a n d t h a t a m a n -a ged p ilot p r ogr -a m m e wou ld b e est -a blish ed t o avoid a n y gla r in g er r or s.

T h e d r a ft st a n d a r d s w er e w r it t en a n d m od i-fi ed for t h e la u n ch of t h e p r oces s of n a t ion a l con su lt a t ion . All sch ools w er e in v it ed t o a sk for a fu ll copy of t h e con su lt a t ion p a p er. At t h e sa m e t im e, a fu r t h er let t er w a s sen t t o a sa m p le of sch ools, p r ofession a l a ssocia t ion s, h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s, LE As, a n d gover n or r e p r esen t a t ive gr ou p s, a m on g ot h -er s. T h is let t -er in v it ed com m en t s, clea r ly est a blish in g a t im es ca le a n d t h e for m a t for r esp on ses. T h is w a s a m a jor exer cise a n d w a s en h a n ced by a ser ies of r e gion a l con fer en ces seek in g d eb a t e a n d in t er a ct ive d iscu ssion on t h e n a t u r e a n d for m a t of t h e n ew q u a lifi ca -t ion .

T h er e w er e n in e r e gion a l con su lt a t ion m eet in gs in volv in g a t ot a l of 620 d ele ga t es. In a d d it ion , w r it t en r esp on ses w er e s u b m it t ed (see Ta ble I).

T h e con su lt a t ion p a p er a ck n ow led ged t h e ch a n gin g d em a n d s of h ea d sh ip a n d t h e fl u id -it y of t h e N P QH :

Table I

Writte n re s po ns e s to re gio nal c o ns ultatio n me e tings

Primary Schools 1 5 2

Secondary Schools 1 2 9

Special Schools 1 2

Local Education Authorities (LEAs) 6 6

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) 7 7

Representative Bodies 3 7

Professional Associations 6

Government Bodies 8

Others (mostly individuals) 4 4

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… t h e sp ecifi c k n ow led ge a n d u n d er st a n d in g r eq u ir ed w ill ch a n ge over t im e, a n d t h er e-for e n eed t o b e r ev iew ed on a r e gu la r b a sis … (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 11).

View s a r e p a r t icu la r ly in v it ed on … w h et h er it is n ecessa r y t o d iffer en t ia t e t h e st a n d a r d s by p h a se or size or t y p e of sch ool, or w h et h er t h e em p h a s is on p er for m in g t a sk s in con t ext a llow for a gen er ic set of st a n -d a r -d s a s p r es en t e-d (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 4).

E m p h a s is w a s p la ced on t h e lea d er s h ip r ole a n d t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e h ea d t o m a k e s u r e t h a t “t h e s ch ool d evelop m en t p la n id en t ifi es a p p r op r ia t e p r ior it ies a n d t a r get s for im p r ovem en t a n d r ela t es t o over a ll fi n a n cia l p la n n in g” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 6). It r ecogn is ed t h e n eed for t ea m wor k a n d wor k in g w it h t h e gover n in g b ody. In t h e sec-t ion on s k ills a n d a b ilisec-t ies, sec-t h e lis sec-t in g ech oed t h e set of com p et en ces fr om N E AC bu t fa iled t o in clu d e “t ea ch in g” a m on g t h e r eq u ir e-m en t s for ca n d id a t es t o h ave t o p r ove. T h is om iss ion w a s r a is ed a s a con cer n by m a n y r esp on d en t s a n d d em on st r a t ed t h e d es ir e for b a la n ce b et w een t h e m a n a ger ia l a n d t h e p r ofes s ion a l, p ed a gogic a sp ect s of t h e h ea d -t ea ch er ’s r ole:

At t h e h ea r t of t h e or ga n is a t ion ... a r e t h e dy n a m ic in t er a ct ion s b et w een t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g … r esea r ch s u gges t s t h a t h ea d s of s ch ools t h a t a ch ieve excellen t r es u lt s ... a r e a lm os t ob ses sed by issu es of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g (H igh er E d u ca t ion r es p on d en t t o N a t ion a l Con su lt a t ion , 1996).

T h er e w a s over w h elm in g s u p p or t for t h e k ey p r in cip les w h ich “w er e w elcom ed a n d ju d ged t o b e com p r eh en sive a n d h elp fu l” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a gr a p h 6).

Wh ile m a n y w a n t ed t o s ee fu ll fu n d in g of a ct u a l cos t s, com m on s en se p r eva iled a s “t h er e w a s a r ea lisa t ion t h a t , a s d em a n d w a s lik ely t o ou t s t r ip t h e su p p ly of fu n d s, lim it ed fu n d in g for t h e m a n y w a s p r efer a ble t o t h e fu ll fu n d in g of a few ” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a . 25).

On a cces s, it w a s felt t h a t , in or d er t o avoid in eq u it y for p r os p ect ive ca n d id a t es, m ea -su r es s h ou ld b e d evelop ed t o en s u r e t h a t ga t ek ee p er s s u ch a s LE As op er a t ed a fa ir sy s t em (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 25). T h e iss u e of a ccess felt m os t s t r on gly by a s p ir in g h ea d s w a s a b ou t t h e r ole of t h eir h ea d t ea ch er a s “ga t ek ee p er ” w h ose “la ck of en cou r a gem en t ” w a s seen “a s a n im p ed im en t t o t h eir ow n CP D (con t in u in g p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t )” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 14). Ca n d id a t es wor k in g in sm a ller sch ools w er e d eem ed t o b e m os t a t r isk . Ru r a l sch ools w er e a ls o felt t o b e in t h is ca t e gor y

… t h er e s h ou ld b e a ser iou s com m it m en t t o eq u a l a cces s t h r ou gh ou t t h e cou n t r y ; t h e

isola t ion of r u r a l sch ools w a s esp ecia lly m en t ion ed (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 22).

T h er e w a s “com p a r a t ively lit t le su p p or t for a q u a lifi ca t ion w h ich sp ecifi es p h a se or t y p e of s ch ool; it w a s t h ou gh t t h a t t h e con t ext in w h ich t h e p er son wor k ed wou ld b e s u fficien t in d ica t ion t o u ser s of t h e in d iv id u a l exp er i-en ce a n d s k ills of t h e ca n d id a t e” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 6).

In r ela t ion t o con t en t , t h e cen t r a l r ole of h ea d t ea ch er a s t ea ch in g lea d er w a s em p h a -sised by on e r esp on d en t w h o a r gu ed for excel-len ce in t h e cla ssr oom a s a p r er eq u isit e for t h e q u a lifi ca t ion :

P r im a r y h ea d t ea ch er s a s d ir ect cu r r icu lu m lea d er s m u st b e excellen t cla s s r oom p r a ct i-t ion er s. T h is r eq u ir em en i-t s h ou ld b e a d d ed t o t h e q u a lifi ca t ion (Res p on s e of P r im a r y h ea d t ea ch er, 1996).

T h e em p h a sis on a com p u lsor y m od u le focu sin g “on t h ose a s p ect s of lea d er s h ip a n d m a n a gem en t w h ich even exp er ien ced h ea d t ea ch -er s fi n d d ifficu lt ” (Tea ch -er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p a r a 40) led m a n y r es p on d en t s t o su p -p or t “a cen t r a l com -p u ls or y m od u le

con cer n ed w it h st r a t e gic d ir ect ion a n d d evel-op m en t a n d cover in g t h e im p lem en t a t ion , m on it or in g a n d r ev iew in g of p olicies a n d p r a ct ices ” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 11). How ever, con cer n t h a t t h e q u a lifi ca t ion m ay s im p ly focu s on t h e t h eor et ica l a sp ect s of t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s r ole w a s voiced by a n u m -b er of r es p on d en t s :

T h er e w a s a ls o w id e a dvoca cy for a q u a lifi -ca t ion t h a t h a d a d is t in ct ive b ia s t ow a r d s p r a ct ice r a t h er t h a n t h eor y (Tea ch er T r a in -in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 14).

a n d

… t h er e w a s a fea r, w id ely exp r es s ed , t h a t t h e aw a r d wou ld b e over -t h eor et ica l (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 14).

Su ch w a s t h e fea r of a p u r ely t h eor et ica l q u a l-ifi ca t ion t h a t st r on g r ecom m en d a t ion s a b ou t d em on st r a t in g im p r ovem en t w it h in t h e ca n -d i-d a t e’s ow n sit u a t ion w er e m a -d e t o en su r e t h a t t h e p r a ct ica l a p p lica t ion of t h e t h eor et i-ca l wor k w a s i-ca r r ied t h r ou gh :

… m a n y of t h e h ea d t ea ch er s a n d gover n or s r esp on d in g w er e clea r t h a t t h ey wou ld exp ect a n yon e w it h t h e q u a lifi ca t ion t o h ave ca u sed som e im p r ovem en t w it h in t h eir cu r r en t sch ool … All ca n d id a t es w ill t h er e-for e b e r eq u ir ed t o s h ow ev id en ce t h a t t h ey h ave ca u sed im p r ovem en t in t h eir cu r r en t sch ool b efor e ga in in g t h e q u a lifi ca t ion (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 46).

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P a r t of t h e developm en t of t h e n ew qu a lifi ca -t ion w a s -t o r ecogn ise -t h e wor k of a r ea s ou -t side edu ca t ion so, con sequ en t ly, it w a s n ot su r pr is-in g t o see t h e TTA t a k is-in g a st r on g lis-in e on t h is in t h e est a blish m en t of r e gion a l cen t r es:

It w ill b e a con d it ion of con t r a ct t h a t t h e p r ov is ion a t t h e N P QH T r a in in g a n d Devel-op m en t Cen t r es d r aw s on t h e b est p r a ct ice fr om ou t s id e ed u ca t ion a s w ell a s fr om in s id e t h e p r ofession (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p a r a 36).

It w a s a ls o n ot s u r p r isin g, con s id er in g t h e r eser va t ion s t h a t m a n y t ea ch er s a n d h ea d s h ave a b ou t t h e a p p lica t ion of m a n a gem en t t ech n iq u es fr om t h e bu s in ess wor ld cit ed a b ove, t h a t t h e follow in g r es p on s e w a s m a d e:

I su p p or t t h e p r in cip les id en t ifi ed bu t a n y m a n a gem en t p r a ct ice d r aw n fr om ou t sid e ed u ca t ion s h ou ld b e p os it ively a p p r op r ia t e t o t h e t a sk of ed u ca t in g ch ild r en a n d you n g a d u lt s a n d n ot sim p ly t o r u n n in g a p r od u c-t ion , in d u sc-t r ia l or m a n u fa cc-t u r in g com p a n y (Resp on s e by p r im a r y h ea d t ea ch er, 1996).

T h e im p or t a n t r ela t ion sh ip w it h t h e gover n -in g b ody a lso d em a n d ed a r es p on s e w h ich a im ed a t h igh ligh t in g t h e im p or t a n ce of d evelop in g a p os it ive wor k in g r ela t ion sh ip :

Wh ile fu lly su p p or t in g t h e p r op osa ls w e feel t h a t gr ea t er em p h a s is s h ou ld b e p la ced on t h e h ea d ’s r ela t ion s h ip w it h t h e Boa r d of Gover n or s a n d t h e fa ct or s t h a t m a k e t h is p a r t n er sh ip fr u it fu l (Resp on se by gover n or, 1996).

In t h e fi n a l d r a ft st a n d a r d s, t h e r efer en ce t o t h e exp ect a t ion t h a t t h e h ea d t ea ch er wor k s w it h t h e gover n in g b ody, w h ile p r ev iou s ly em p h a sis ed in t h e wor d in g p r ior t o t h e St a ge Two Con s u lt a t ion , is fu r t h er es t a blis h ed in b old t y p e (s ee Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p. 19).

T h e q u a lifi ca t ion h a s, in r es p on s e t o t h ese v iew s, m a d e ch a n ges t o t h e t on e a n d n a t u r e of t h e s t a n d a r d s a n d t h e m a n n er in w h ich t h ey a r e t o b e a s sess ed .

Implementation

T h e TTA h a s es t a blish ed a s et of t en r e gion a l cen t r es in E n gla n d for a s sess m en t a n d for t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t . E a ch cen t r e is u n d er t h e con t r ol of t h e TTA a n d a ccou n t a ble t o t h e b oa r d . In a d d it ion t o t h e d evelop m en t cen t r es, a s er ies of d is t a n ce lea r n in g m a t er i-a ls w ill p r ov id e i-a n i-a lt er n i-a t ive m ei-a n s of s t u dy so t h a t is s u es of a cces s a r e n ot a p r oh ib it ive a s p ect for ca n d id a t es. T h e com p u ls or y cor e w ill focu s on “st r a t e gic d ir ect ion a n d d evelop -m en t … i-m p le-m en t a t ion , -m on it or in g a n d r ev iew in g of p olicies a n d p r a ct ices” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p. 11). T h e q u a lifi ca -t ion w ill b e ga in ed w i-t h in on e -t o -t h r ee yea r s w it h fu n d in g “ch a n n elled a s a gr a n t t o t h e su ccess fu l ca n d id a t es t h r ou gh LE As for t h ose

in LE A-m a in t a in ed sch ools a n d t h r ou gh t h e N P QH Assess m en t Cen t r es for t h ose in gr a n t -m a in t a in ed sch ools ” (Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy, 1996c, p. 14).

T h e t r ia l p h a se in t h e fi r st h a lf of 1997 h a s r esu lt ed in m od ifi ca t ion s t o t h e d eliver y of t h e p r ogr a m m e a n d it is in ev it a ble t h a t t h e q u a lifi ca t ion w ill con t in u e t o evolve a n d b e su b ject t o con st a n t r ev iew b eca u se it is a p r ofes sion a l q u a lifi ca t ion , s et t in g ou t t o en a ble t h e effect ive t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t of su it a ble ca n d id a t es for sch ool lea d er sh ip. As s ch ools a n d t h eir socia l a n d p olit ica l con -t ex-t s gr ow a n d d evelop, so -t h e q u a lifi ca -t ion it self w ill h ave t o evolve a n d t r a n sfor m t o m eet ch a n gin g d em a n d s.

Wit h t h e in t r od u ct ion of t h e N P QH , su p -p or t ed by t h e Gover n m en t a n d d evelo-p ed colla b or a t ively t h r ou gh t h e ed u ca t ion a l sec-t or by sec-t h e TTA, w e m ay h ave p lu gged sec-t h e ga p in t r a in in g ou r sch ool lea d er s. T h e q u a lifi ca -t ion m u s-t n ow ga in a r e p u -t a -t ion a s a r igor ou s m ea su r e of p ot en t ia l in a sp ir a n t h ea d t ea ch -er s a s a su r e gu id e t o gov-er n or s a n d a clea r p r ogr a m m e for t h e d evelop m en t of fu t u r e sch ool lea d er s. It sh ou ld t h en b e p ossible for in d iv id u a ls t o ga in cr ed it t ow a r d s h igh er d e gr ees for som e of t h e wor k w h ich t h ey h ave b een ca r r y in g ou t for N P QH .

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