Prepositions for and to among the Sixth Semester Students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: English Letters Department, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Preposition, as one of the parts of speech in English, has important rules in order to build a correct sentence. A preposition is a word showing relationship between its object and some other words in a sentence. The reason that prepositions have the name they do is that they precede nouns—they are pre -position. In English, there are several prepositions which are quite difficult to comprehend and sometimes produce some errors when they are applied in a sentence. Two of the prepositions which sometimes cause some errors when they are applied in a sentence are for and to.
There are two formulated problems which are discussed throughout this research. The first one is the accuracy in using the prepositions for and to among the sixth semester students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. The second one is the types of errors that contribute to the students’ accuracy in mastering the prepositions for and to.
This research applied a test as the instrument in order to answer the research problems. This was a survey research, in which the objects of this research were the sixth semester students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University of academic year 2015/1016. This research applied a random sampling technique to gather the data. The test was conducted in two classes, which are Translation II and Morphosyntax II.
Prepositions for and to among the Sixth Semester Students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Kata depan, sebagai salah satu bagian dari jenis kata di dalam bahasa Inggris, mempunyai peran yang sangat penting dalam membentuk sebuah kalimat yang benar. Kata depan adalah sebuah kata yang menunjukkan hubungan antara suatu objek dengan beberapa kata lain di dalam suatu kalimat. Alasan mengapa jenis kata tersebut dinamakan kata depan atau preposisi karena mereka mendahului kata benda, mereka— pre-posisi. Dalam bahasa Inggris, ada beberapa kata depan yang cukup sulit untuk dimengerti dan terkadang menyebabkan kesalahan pada pengaplikasiannya dalam sebuah kalimat. Dua preposisi yang sering menyebabkan kesalahan dalam pengaplikasiaannya tersebut adalah for dan to.
Ada dua rumusan masalah yang akan dibahas dalam penelitian ini. Pertama, yakni keakuratan dalam penggunaan kata depan for dan to pada mahasiswa semester enam Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Kedua, yakni kesalahan-kesalahan yang mempengaruhi mahasiswa dalam penguasaan kata depan for and to.
Penelitian ini menggunakan tes sebagai instrumen untuk menjawab masalah-masalah yang ada di rumusan masalah. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian survei yang mana objeknya adalah mahasiswa semester enam Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma tahun ajaran 2015/2016. Sebuah pemercontohan kelompok acak (random sampling) digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data. Tes tersebut dilaksanakan di dua kelas, yakni pada kelas Translation II dan kelas Morphosyntax II.
THE MASTERY OF PREPOSITIONS FOR AND TO AMONG THE SIXTH SEMESTER STUDENTS AT ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements For the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
By
I MADE ALVIANTO PUTRA PALAMBA Student Number: 12424120
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
ii
THE MASTERY OF PREPOSITIONS FOR AND TO AMONG THE SIXTH SEMESTER STUDENTS AT ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements For the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
By
I MADE ALVIANTO PUTRA PALAMBA Student Number: 12424120
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
vii
Philippians 4:13
viii
Progress is impossible without change,
and those who cannot change their minds,
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to express my gratefulness to God, for His blessing and miracles along my life. I am so thankful for Him who has given me a great chance to pass my four years studying in Sanata Dharma University. I do realize that He always accompanies and stands right beside me so that I can finish my thesis.
I address my sincere gratitude to my parents and my family for supporting me spiritually in writing this thesis. I also thank God for them, who always send their love, support, advice, and care to me. They are my life supporters.
I am highly indebted to my advisor, Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum., who always gives her time, patience, understanding, guidance, and support along the process of finishing my thesis. Her advices and guidance will be indeed unforgettable. Additionally, I deliver my gratitude to my co-advisor Arina Isti'anah, S.Pd., M.Hum., who gives me the detailed correction to improve my thesis before the examination.
x
Finally, I will take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to all my dearest friends for their support and care given to me. I am really grateful for the things we have shared together along our journey in college life. May the God have mercy on us.
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ……… ii
APPROVAL PAGE ………. iii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ……… iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ……….. v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH………. vi
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ……….. 1
A. Background of the Study ……… 1
B. Problem Formulation ………. 4
C. Objectives of the Study………... 4
D. Definition of Terms ……… 5
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW ……….. 7
A. Review of Related Studies ………. 7
B. Review of Related Theories ……….. 11
1. Preposition……… 11
a. Preposition for………... 12
b. Preposition to………. 16
c. Indonesian preposition untuk, kepada, ke, buat, and bagi… 20 i. Indonesian Preposition untuk………. 20
ii. Indonesian Preposition kepada……….. 20
iii. Indonesian Preposition ke……….. 21
iv. Indonesian Preposition buat... 21
v. Indonesian Preposition bagi……….. 22
2. Types of Errors in Second Language Acquisition………. 22
a. Interlingual Transfer………. 22
b. Interference……… 23
c. Intralingual Transfer………. 23
3. Validity and Reliability of the Test……… 24
a. Validity of the Test……….. 24
b. Reliability of the Test……… 26
xii
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ………... 30
A. Object of The Study ……… 30
B. Approach of the Study ……… 30
C. Method of the Study ……….. 31
1. Data Collection………... 31
2. Data Analysis………... 37
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS ……….. 38
A. The Students’ Accuracy in Mastering Prepositions for and to… 38 1. Data Presentation………... 38
a. The Students’ Achievement in Part A………. 39
b. The Students’ Achievement in Part B………. 40
c. The Students’ Achievement in the Whole Test..………. 41
2. Errors Classification……….. 42
3. Data Analysis……… 44
a. Reliability of the Test………. 44
b. Descriptive Analysis Presentation……….. 44
c. The Students’ Achievement Analysis in Each Preposition……….. 47
4. The Discussion of the Students’ Mastery of Prepositions for and to………... 49
a. The Students’ Accuracy in Mastering English Prepositions for and to……… 49
b. The Student’s Difficulties in Applying English Prepositions for and to……….. 49
i. The Students’ Difficulties in Mastering the Prepositions for……….. 49
ii. The Syntax Errors of Preposition for………. 61
iii. The Students’ Difficulties in Mastering the Prepositions to...……….. 62
iv. The Syntax Errors of Preposition to……… 73
B. The Errors that Contribute to the Students’ Mastery of Prepositions for and to………..……… 75
1. Interlingual Transfer……… 76
2. Interference……….. 77
3. Intralingual Transfer …….……….. 79
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION………...……… 81
A. Conclusion ……… 81
B. Suggestions……… 83
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 The Function of Preposition for Taken from Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary 8thEdition……….. 14
Table 2.2 The List of Words Typically Associated with Preposition for … 15 Table 2.3 The Function of Preposition to Taken from Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8thEdition …..……… 17
Table 2.4 The List of Words Typically Associated with Preposition to...... 19
Table 3.1 The Blueprint of the Distribution of the Prepositions for and to Applied in the Test ………..……… 33
Table 4.1 The Students’ Achievements in Part A….……… 39
Table 4.2 The Students’ Achievements in Part B ……… 40
Table 4.3 Overall Students’ Achievements in the Test …..….………. 41
Table 4.4 The Errors Classification..………..……….. 43
Table 4.5 The Descriptive Analysis………...………....45
Table 4.6 The Students’ Achievement in the Test………....………… 47
Table 4.7 The Students’ Achievement in Preposition for………...…. 48
Table 4.8 The Students’ Achievement in Preposition to...………...…..48
Table 4.9 The Distribution of Syntax Errors of Preposition for...…………..61
Table 4.10 The Distribution of Syntax Errors of Preposition to………..74
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Students’ Score ………. 88
Appendix 2. The Reliability of the Half Test ……. ………..90
Appendix 3. The Reliability of the Whole Test ……..………. 90
Appendix 4. The Variables of the Questionnaire ………. 91
xv ABSTRACT
I MADE ALVIANTO PUTRA PALAMBA (2016). The Mastery of Prepositions for and to among the Sixth Semester Students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: English Letters Department, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Preposition, as one of the parts of speech in English, has important rules in order to build a correct sentence. A preposition is a word showing relationship between its object and some other words in a sentence. The reason that prepositions have the name they do is that they precede nouns—they are pre-position. In English, there are several prepositions which are quite difficult to comprehend and sometimes produce some errors when they are applied in a sentence. Two of the prepositions which sometimes cause some errors when they are applied in a sentence are for and to.
There are two formulated problems which are discussed throughout this research. The first one is the accuracy in using the prepositions for and to among the sixth semester students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. The second one is the types of errors that contribute to the students’ accuracy in mastering the prepositions for and to.
This research applied a test as the instrument in order to answer the research problems. This was a survey research, in which the objects of this research were the sixth semester students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University of academic year 2015/1016. This research applied a random sampling technique to gather the data. The test was conducted in two classes, which are Translation II and Morphosyntax II.
xvi ABSTRAK
I MADE ALVIANTO PUTRA PALAMBA (2016). The Mastery of Prepositions for and to among the Sixth Semester Students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Kata depan, sebagai salah satu bagian dari jenis kata di dalam bahasa Inggris, mempunyai peran yang sangat penting dalam membentuk sebuah kalimat yang benar. Kata depan adalah sebuah kata yang menunjukkan hubungan antara suatu objek dengan beberapa kata lain di dalam suatu kalimat. Alasan mengapa jenis kata tersebut dinamakan kata depan atau preposisi karena mereka mendahului kata benda, mereka— pre-posisi. Dalam bahasa Inggris, ada beberapa kata depan yang cukup sulit untuk dimengerti dan terkadang menyebabkan kesalahan pada pengaplikasiannya dalam sebuah kalimat. Dua preposisi yang sering menyebabkan kesalahan dalam pengaplikasiaannya tersebut adalah for dan to.
Ada dua rumusan masalah yang akan dibahas dalam penelitian ini. Pertama, yakni keakuratan dalam penggunaan kata depan for dan to pada mahasiswa semester enam Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Kedua, yakni kesalahan-kesalahan yang mempengaruhi mahasiswa dalam penguasaan kata depan for and to.
Penelitian ini menggunakan tes sebagai instrumen untuk menjawab masalah-masalah yang ada di rumusan masalah. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian survei yang mana objeknya adalah mahasiswa semester enam Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma tahun ajaran 2015/2016. Sebuah pemercontohan kelompok acak (random sampling) digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data. Tes tersebut dilaksanakan di dua kelas, yakni pada kelas Translation II dan kelas Morphosyntax II.
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
It is obvious that all languages have their own rules in making correct
sentences, one of them is English. Being a language that is widely used by many
people all over the world, English has its own rules in terms of forming a correct
sentence. These rules are built in one unit called Grammar (Murcia and Freeman
1999: 3). Generally, grammar has two big elements, which are tenses and parts of
speech. Noun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, and
interjection are kinds of part of speech which are referred to lexical categories
(Wren and Martin 2000: 17). Each part of speech has its important rules in order to
build a right sentence, especially preposition, which will be explained further
throughout this research. Marckwardt states that a preposition is a word showing
the relationship of its object and some other words in a sentence (1948: 263).
Preposition is also categorized as one of the function words. There are many
prepositions commonly used in English, such asat, in, on, from, to, for,etc. Sinclair
reveals that there are approximately 100 prepositions commonly used in English
sentences but the most frequent prepositions used in English sentences are to, of,
and in (1991: vi). Murcia and Freeman (1999: 402) elaborate that “English
prepositions are free morphemes, not bound inflectional affixes as they are in many
other languages. The reason that prepositions have the name they do is that they
examples of the use of prepositions are: (a)She is a delegate for the state of Illinois,
(b)I run for 8 minutes, (c)These sessions are open to all members, (d)This key
belongs to her.
In mastering English as a second or foreign language, a language transfer
often happens. It occurs when the second language learners translate the first
language into the target language word by word. Indonesian students are the
examples who learn English as the second language. Some Indonesian students who
learn English as the second language still find some difficulties to decide which
prepositions they have to use in a sentence, for there are some prepositions in
Indonesian language which literally have the same meaning but will be different if
they are translated into English. As an instance, it is recognized that the Indonesian
students will translate the preposition for and to intountuk, kepada, ke, buatand
bagi. Concurrently, they will struggle to translate the Indonesian prepositionsuntuk,
kepada, ke, buat andbagiinto English and decide which preposition (for orto) is
more appropriate to use, because to Indonesian students, for and to might almost
share the same meaning. In fact, those prepositions are quite different since there
are several rules to consider in applying them. Regarding this condition, Indonesian
language may affect the way Indonesian students in mastering and understanding
the use of English preposition. They may also have some difficulties in mastering
the prepositionsforandtobecause of their weak understanding. As an instance, the
Indonesian students may have difficulties to translate “saya berbicara kepada
semua orang yang ada di perusahaan ini” into English. Then, it might be translated
this company”. In this case, the Indonesian students might be confused to decide
which preposition they have to use in order to make the correct sentence. The
sentence “I am speaking for all people in this company” has different meaning
compared to “I am speakingtoall people in this company”. The prepositionforin
the first sentence indicates the subject “I” as a representative of the company, “I”
represents everyone who works in that company. Conversely, in the second
sentence, the preposition to points out the subject “I” as the one who speaks to
everyone working in that company. In conclusion, the English prepositionsforand
to have their special functions when they are used in a sentence. Thus, the
Indonesian students as the second language learners cannot apply them arbitrarily
in a sentence.
This research focuses on measuring the ability of the sixth semester students
at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University in using prepositionfor
andtoa sentence. Moreover, the researcher is eager to identify whether or not the
students find difficulties to decide which prepositions (fororto) they should use in
making a correct sentence, especially in translating the Indonesian prepositions
untuk, kepada, ke, buat and bagi into English. This will be related to certain
conditions in which the students’ first language (mother tongue) influences their
second language learning. Thus, it is also very important to find out whether or not
the students are influenced by their first language (Indonesian) in second language
B. Problem Formulation
These are the formulated problems which are going to analyze throughout
this research.
1. How accurate are the sixth semester students at English Letters Department in
mastering the prepositionsforandto?
2. What causes the errors in mastering the prepositionforandto?
C. Objectives of the study
This research is conducted to achieve two objectives. The first objective is
to figure out the accuracy in using prepositionforandtoamong the sixth semester
students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. The accuracy
in mastering those prepositions can be measured by applying certain methods,
which are survey research and library research. A survey research is conducted to
gather the data to be analyzed in studying the prepositions. Thus, a test will be
conducted as an assessment instrument to get the data that will be analyzed to
comprehend the student’s mastery in using prepositionsforandto. Meanwhile, the
library research is conducted to find several related theories supporting the
arguments or opinions that the researcher has made. Afterwards, as the accuracy in
using the prepositionsforandtois figured out, there will be several type of errors
to be identified in mastering the prepositions forand toamong the sixth semester
D. Definition Of Terms
It is very important to provide sufficient information about some terms or
keywords that are specifically used in a research in order to avoid
misunderstanding. The terms used in this research are mastery, accuracy,
prepositions,and error. According to Fries, a mastery is a condition when a person
has learned a foreign language when he has, firstly, although has limited
vocabularies, mastered the sound system and has, secondly, made the structural
devices matters of automatic habit (1948: 3). Moreover, Smolinski further
highlights:
Mastery then of the “words”, the vocabularies, the lexicon, of even our native language is always limited, never complete. Growth in the knowledge of “meanings” accompanies our expanding experience. The mastery of the “words”, the vocabulary, of a foreign language is also bound by our factual experience and takes time. There are no short cuts to a control of the complete vocabulary of a foreign language (1993: 52).
He also adds that in learning a foreign language, the mastery of that language
concerns the mastery of the features of arrangement that constitute the structure of
the language.
The second term is accuracy. According to Smolinski (1993: 52), the
accuracy does not always concern about the so-called “correctness” of the common
handbooks—the spelling pronunciation often advocated there, the forms of words
pronounced in isolation, or the school mastered structures that have no vogue
outside the classroom. Nevertheless, the accuracy here mostly refers to an accuracy
based on a realistic description of the actual language as used by native speakers in
carrying their affairs—the exact reproduction of all parts of whole utterances as
The third term is preposition. Prepositions in English are a well-known
challenges for English learners as a second language, as they are one of the most
problematic areas (Lindstromberg, 1991 and Capel, 1993). This research will
specifically discuss about prepositions forand toin which the students find some
difficulties to apply them properly in a sentence.
The fourth term is error. Norrish argues that error is a systematic deviation,
when a learner has not learned something and consistently gets it wrong (1983: 7).
This study proposes the term “error” because the main goal of this research is to
find out several errors that contribute to the students’ mastery of prepositions for
7 CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Review of Related Studies
Throughout this part, there are three studies reviewed from previous
researchers related to the research. The first one is from an undergraduate thesis
conducted by Marsilus Marsell Wibowo (2012) entitledThe Mastery of Preposition
at, in, and on among The Seventh Semester Students at English Letters Department
of Sanata Dharma University.Wibowo’s thesis was a survey research concerning
about the mastery of prepositionat, in andonamong the university students who
took English as their major. The objects of his study were the seventh semester
students at English Letters Department in academic year 2012/2013. In order to
answer the formulated problems, Wibowo used several methods, which were a
questionnaire or a test as the instrument and random sampling to gather the data.
He revealed, based on the Academic Regulation 2010 of Sanata Dharma
University, that the mastery of the seventh semester students in using the
prepositions of placeat, in, andonwas sufficient. The students’ average score was
16.69 (66,76%) in which 64.10% students were considered to enter the category of
sufficient. The achievement fell above the minimum passing grade according to the
academic regulation of Sanata Dharma University. Based on this research, the
researcher found out that the students’ problem in mastering the prepositions of
placeat, in,andonwas on the application of prepositionat, in which there was only
incorrect numbers in the test. Wibowo also identified the possible factors that cause
the students’ difficulties in learning the prepositions of place at, in, andon which
were interference (the problem that is caused by the influence of the first language,
Indonesian), overlapping, and overgeneralization.
The second is from an undergraduate thesis written by Maya Elfrida
Sianipar (2007) entitled The Functions, Positions and Meanings of for and
to prepositional phrases in Jeanette Winterson`s sexing the cherry. In her thesis,
she described that the data collection and the data analysis took place
simultaneously; firstly, the data were collected by signing the samples to be taken,
which were the prepositional phrases containing prepositionsfor andto,and then
classified the data by considering the circumstances around both prepositions in
order to find out the prepositional phrases showing time, place, and movement.
Finally, she analyzed the prepositionsforandtoto find the functions, the positions
and also to find the meaning of each prepositions.
As a result, after doing the steps in the method of the study, she figured out
that prepositional phrases withforcan function as an adjunct and a post modifier of
a noun phrase, while prepositional phrases withtocan function as an adjunct, a post
modifier of a noun phrase, a complementation of a verb, and as a complementation
of an adjective. The positions owned by both prepositions can be in the initial,
medial, and final (end) position. The meanings of prepositionforshowing time are
duration or the length of the time, occasion, and target; to show place, preposition
for can mean target, position, and distance. The preposition to showing time can
introduce place, this preposition can mean position, target, and distance. At last, in
showing movement, the preposition to can mean “from starting point to
destination”.
The third is from an article written by Norwati Roslim (2014) entitled
Prepositions and ESL Learners: the Malaysian Scenario. This article presented by
Roslim was a review of the literature on prepositions with a focus on definitions
and main difficulties faced by Malaysian students. She figured out that the problem
that the Malaysian ESL learners may have in using prepositions was the differences
between the use of prepositions in the English language and in the first language of
the Malaysian ESL users, that is, Bahasa Melayu. In Malaysian context, it is quite
relevant to compare the prepositions in the English language and Malay in an
attempt to determine whether there would be difficulties in learning or acquiring
English prepositions faced by students whose mother tongue as well as medium of
instruction is Malay. Furthermore, she also revealed, as cited from Yong (2001),
that Malaysian and Indonesian learners revealed the problems between the Malay
and the Indonesian learners in using prepositions were quite similar. Errors were
found in the use of correct preposition after a verb, adjective or noun in expressions
like addto,attendto,allowfor,hopefor,consciousof,and basedon. These learners
also showed the problem in choosing the right preposition in fixed expressions like
withgreat courtesy, inanger, bythe back door, onthe radio, bytrain.
Based on the three researches previously, the researcher concludes some
points. First of all, the researcher discovers something new closely related to the
his research, Wibowo examined the prepositions of placeat, in, andon that often
cause some errors for English Learners (Indonesian students) to be mastered. Then,
regarding this problem, this research will analyze other English prepositions in
which the Indonesian learners also find some difficulties to comprehend them,
which are the prepositionsforandto.
Secondly, the researcher finds several similarities between those researches
and the current research. The researcher finds that this research is similar to research
conducted by Wibowo, in which the researcher will use several methods, namely
test as the research instrument and the use of random sampling to gather the data.
The researcher also figures out that this research is identical to Roslim’s research,
which is identifying students’ difficulties in learning English as the Second
Language. This research will also improve the research done by Wibowo, in which
several methods that are not mentioned yet will be provided, such as the theory of
random sampling in data gathering procedure.
On the other hand, the researcher realizes that there are also several
differences between the previous researches and this research. Firstly, unlike the
previous researches, the respondents in this research are the sixth semester students
of academic year 2015/2016 at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma
University. Secondly, this research only focuses on the mastery of the students in
mastering the preposition offorandto, different from Wibowo’s research, in which
his research focused on the preposition of placeat, in,andon. Thirdly, this research
differs from Sianipar’s, for this study only focuses on the mastery of the use of
and meanings of prepositions for and to. The last, this research is dissimilar to
Roslim’s research, for her research focuses on the definitions and main difficulties
of prepositions faced by Malaysian students.
B. Review of Related Theories 1. Preposition
In English, preposition is an important class of function words. According
to Yu, prepositions belong to functional parts of speech and are rather active (2014:
1). She also adds that in English, some prepositions are among the most common
words. She says that “Linguists argue that English language is a prepositional one,
which indicates that the preposition is one of the most useful and active parts of
speech in English” (cited from Li, 2007: 11). Moreover, according to Roslim (2014:
1), as cited form Kaplan (1989) and Hughes (1992), preposition is also defined as
a word or group of words and often has meanings which have something to do with
location or direction and movement and also time or method. She also mentions
that the majority of prepositions express relationship between things and events and
their basic sense is spatial (Borjars and Burridge, 2001). Furthermore, Delija and
Koruti, in their research, further explain that prepositions are very confusing and
sometimes hardly understandable even for native speakers, and when it comes to
students who learn English as second language, the problem is much bigger, for
they have to understand all the nuances of the English prepositions, to memorize
a. Prepositionfor
The preposition foris one of the English prepositions which is difficult to
learn since it often causes some errors in a sentence. Indonesian students who learn
English as the second language find some difficulties whether to useforortoas the
appropriate one in a sentence. Compared to the prepositionto,foris more confusing
because the meaning offorseems abstract, manifold, and elusive (Lindstromberg,
2010: 224). He then classifies the senses/usages of prepositionforas follows.
i. Representation: She is a delegate for the State of Illinois; [Take this] for example.
ii. Substitution: X can substitutefory.
iii. Price, payment, compensation, thanks: You can have “x”for“y” Euros; Paymentforyour time; Compensationforloss of…; I am gratefulfor….
iv. Intended recipient: This isforyou. v. Intended destination: Leaveforwork
vi. Aim, purpose, reason: aimfor, lookfor, try for; Go out fora smoke; He livesforhimself alone.
vii. Reason/Cause: jumpforjoy; It looks the worseforwear.
viii. Function: Pens areforwriting with; Patience is necessaryforthis work. ix. Quantity as related to a purpose: Enough moneyforschool.
x. Support: He’sforhigher taxes. xi. Choice: vote/optforchange.
xiv. Object of emotion: Love/hate somebodyforhaving done “x”; wishfor“x”; Oh, [what I wouldn’t give]fora cold beer!
xv. Appropriacy: This is a good/appropriate remedyforheadaches.
xvi. Relevance~ ‘with regard to’:Formy part, I’m going home; You can drop deadforall I care.
E.g.For…to: It’s unusualfor him to do that kind of thing; What I want is
foryou to leave.
xvii. Attitude: Take somebodyforgranted; [take something]forcertain/sure. xviii. Indicating a distance: run (for) a mile.
xix. Indicating a length of time: runfor8 minutes;forever. xx. Indicating an occasion in a series: I’m hereforthe 2nd time. xxi. In relation to a norm:Fora woman of 90, she’s very active.
Lindstromberg adds that there would be a number of kinships across them.
As instances:
– The expression leave forwork (category ‘ii’) seems to be an instance of ‘substitution’ (category ‘i’) since it really means something like leave home for work. – Categories (iii) and (iv) seem to have a lot in common. For instance, support for someone or something (iii) can affect its interests or condition (iv).
– The last sub-category in (ii), ‘Quantity as related to a purpose’, seems to be a special case of ‘relevance’ (category ‘v’).
Regarding this additional number of kinship, Lindstromberg aim’s is to purpose the
possibility that the usage in categories (i)-(xxi) have more in common that emerges
from their presentation in traditional list form (2010: 225).
In this research, the researcher provides the function of preposition for
better view of the list of the functions of preposition for, the table is displayed
below.
Table 2.1 The Functions of Prepositionfortaken from Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8thEdition
No. Functions Examples
1.
To show who is intended to have or use something or where something is
Can you translate this letterforme? I took her classesforher while she
was sick.
Soldiers fightfortheir country. 3. To concern somebody/something
They are anxiousforher safety. Fortunatelyforus, the weather
changed.
4. To show someone/something as a representative
I am speakingforeveryone in this department.
5. To show who is employed (by) She is workingforIBM.
6. To reveal the meaning of something Shaking your headfor“NO” is not universal.
7. To support somebody/something
Are youforor against the proposal? They votedforindependence in a
referendum.
There is a strong caseforpostponing the exam.
I’m allforpeople having fun.
8. To show purpose or function
A machineforslicing bread. Let’s gofora walk.
Are you learning Englishfor
pleasure orforyour work? What did you do thatfor?
9. To show a reason or cause
The town is famousforits cathedral. She gave me a watchformy
birthday.
He got an awardforbravery.
10. To obtain something
He comes to meforadvice. Formore information, call this
No. Functions Examples
11. To express an exchange for something
Copies are availablefortwo dollars each.
I’ll swap these two bottlesforthat one.
12. To consider what can be expected from somebody/something
The weather was warmforthe time of year.
She’s tallforher age.
That’s too much responsibilityfora child.
13. To express the better, happier, etc. feeling of something
You’ll feel betterfora good night’s sleep.
This room would look more cheerful
fora spot of paint.
14. To show where somebody/something is going
Is this the busforChicago? She knew she was destinedfora
great future.
15. To show a length of time I’m going awayfora few days. That’s all the news there isfornow. 16. To show that something is arranged or
intended to happen at a particular time
An appointmentforMay 12. We’re invitedfor7.30.
17.
To show how difficult, necessary, pleasant, etc. something is that somebody might do or has done
It’s uselessforus to continue. There’s no needforyou to go. Forher to have survived such an
ordeal was remarkable.
The box is too heavyforme to lift. Is it clear enoughforyou to read?
18. To show who can or should do something
It’s notforme to say why he left. How to spend the money isforyou
to decide.
Here are some examples of words (verbs, nouns, and adjectives) that are
typically associated with prepositionfor.
Table 2.2 The List of Words Typically Associated with Prepositionfor
For
As a preposition, the basic spatial meaning of tois used to express certain
verbs of giving and sending such as transmit, forward, (re)direct, communicate,
distribute, transfer, grant, etc. – as well as with verbs of intended or potential giving
or sending such as allot and assign (Lindstromberg, 2010: 233). Moreover,
The following are the views of prepositiontoreferring to movement or position in
space.
i. In relation to a point, or dimension unspecified
X GotoX
Y X Go from XtoY
Y Go backtoY
ii. Analysis of going to X
X We are coming/gettingtoX
iii. In relation to a surface, two dimensions
Go on (to) the platform
iv. In relation to a space, three dimension
Come in (to) my office
Furthermore, to make a better understanding of the use of prepositionto, the
researcher provides the functions of prepositiontoalong with the examples of each
function according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8thEdition as follows.
Table 2.3 The Functions of Prepositiontotaken from Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8thEdition
No. Functions Examples
1. To show the direction of something; towards something
I walkedtothe office. He’s goingtoParis.
It was my first visittoAfrica. He pointedtosomething on the
opposite bank.
2.
(to) the something (of something) located in the direction mentioned from something
Place the cursortothe left of the first word.
There are mountainstothe north. 3. To show something is as far as
something
No. Functions Examples
4. To reach a particular state
The vegetables were cookedto
perfection.
The letter reduced hertotears
5. To show the end or limit of a range or period of time
A drop in profits from $105 million
toaround $75 million.
I like all kinds of music from operato
reggae.
I watched the programs from the beginningtoend.
6. To show (something) before the start of something
How long is ittolunch?
It’s fivetoten (= five minutes before ten o’clock).
7. To show the person or thing that receives something
He gave ittohis sister. I will explaintoyou where
everything goes.
I am deeply gratefultomy parents. Towhom did she address the letter? 8. To show the person or thing that is
affected by an action
She is devotedtoher family. What have you donetoyour hair? 9. To show that two things are attached
or connected Attach this ropetofront of the car.
10. To show a relationship between one person or thing and another
She is marriedtoan Italian. The keytothe door.
The solutiontothis problem. 11. To show something is directed toward;
concerning
It was a threattoworld peace. She made a referencetoher recent
book.
12. To introduce the second part of a comparison or ratio
I prefer walkingtoclimbing.
The industry today is nothingtowhat it once was.
13. To show a quantity or rate There are 2.54 centimeterstoan inch. This car does 30 milestothe gallon. 14. To show an honor towards
somebody/something
A monumenttothe soldiers who died in the war.
Let’s drinktoJulia and her new job. 15.
To show something happens while something else is happening or being done.
He left the stagetoprolonged applause.
16. To show somebody’s attitude or reaction to something
His music is not reallytomy taste. Toher astonishment, he smiled. 17. To show what somebody’s opinion or
In this part, some examples of words (verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns) that
are typically associated with prepositiontoare also provided. The following is the
list of each group of words.
Table 2.4 The List of Words Typically Associated with Prepositionto
c. Indonesian Prepositionuntuk,kepada, ke, buatandbagi
The following are the theories of Indonesian prepositionsuntuk,kepada, ke,
buat and bagi, which are provided to see the influence of the source language
(Indonesian) in the process of learning the second language (English).
i. Indonesian Prepositionuntuk
Chaer states that the prepositionuntukis used to reveal “aim” or “intended
action” which precedes pronoun, as in (a) Beliau membawakan oleh-oleh untuk
kami, (b) Pupuk dikirim untuk para petani, (c) Ayah membeli sepatu untuk kami
(2011: 136). Moreover, Ramlan (1980: 116) explains that the prepositionuntukis
used to indicate “functions” of something, as in (a)Sampah lain yang masih tersisa
diproses menjadi kompos yang dapat dijual untuk pupuk, (b) Bagian tengah
lapangan itu dibiarkan kosong untuk upacara.
ii. Indonesian Prepositionkepada
The Indonesian prepositionkepadais used to indicate “intended recipient”.
It occurs before the object in a sentence in which the predicate of the sentence
means “directed towards something”, as in (a) Persoalan itu telah dilaporkan
kepada gubernur,(b)harus melapor dulu kepada bagian keamanan(Chaer, 2011:
131).
Meanwhile, Ramlan (1980: 77) explains further about the use of Indonesian
prepositionkepadaaccording to its rules which can be seen as follows.
a) Kepada is used to indicate the “recipient”, meaning that the recipient
Panggilan itu dilakukan dengan mengirimkan surat panggilan kepada
pungusaha.
Hasilnya diserahkan kepada orang-orang miskin.
b) Kepadais used to indicate “something or someone which is intended to”
Lampu-lampu sudah diarahkan kepada kita.
Saya sangat tertarik kepada pendidikan masyarakat.
c) Kepadais used to indicate the “object”
Orang tua itu sayang kepada anak-anaknya.
Takut kepada Tuhan berarti menjalankan segala perintahnya.
iii. Indonesian Prepositionke
According to Chaer (2011: 130), the Indonesian preposition ke is used to
reveal “the places where someone or something goes” which precedes before noun
that indicates place, as in (a) Ibu pergi ke kantor pos, (b) Paman berangkat ke
Surabaya, (c)Kami akan berdarmawisata ke Candi Borobudur.Another function
of Indonesian prepositionkeis to say where something or someone moves, which
precedes before “adverb of time” in a sentence, as in (a)Dia pergi beristirahat ke
Pulau Bali, (b)Yang berminat harap mendaftarkan diri ke kantor usaha.
iv. Indonesian Prepositionbuat
According to Chaer, the Indonesian preposition buat is used as the variant of
recommended to use, for it has the same meaning to the Indonesian preposition
untuk(2011: 137). The example is (a)Ibu membawakan bunga buat kami.
v. Indonesian Prepositionbagi
According to Ramlan (1980: 36), the Indonesian prepositionbagiis used to
indicate the term “intended”, which is in line with the use of the Indonesian
preposition untuk. For examples: (a)Cabang-cabang produksi yang penting bagi
Negara dan yang menguasai hidup orang banyak dikuasai Negara,(b)Perumahan
bagi prajurit dan keluarganya merupakan kebutuhan yang utama.
2. Types of Errors in Second Language Acquisition a. Interlingual Transfer
Interlingual transfer refers to the beginning or the early stages of learning a
second language. Through the early stages, before the system of the second
language is familiar to the second language learners, the native language is the only
linguistic system in previous experience upon which the learner can draw (Brown,
1987: 177). The examples of interlingual transfer can be found when some English
students tend to say ‘sheep’ for ‘ship’ or ‘the book of Math’ rather than ‘Math’s
book’. These sentences refer to the negative inter-language transfer in learning
English as a second language. According to Brown (1987: 177), the negative
inter-language transfer or errors in inter-language transfer can be detectable in learner’s
b. Interference
Another problem that often causes error in comprehending certain
languages is interference. Interference is the first language influence on second
language performance (Krashen, 1981: 64). He further explains that the first
language influence may therefore be an indication of low acquisition (Kranshen,
1981; 67). In this case, interference becomes a problem on language acquisition for
Indonesian learners in mastering English as a second language since the first
language, which is Indonesian, may affect them.
Bhela (1999: 23), as cited from Ellis (1997), interference refers to a
‘transfer’, which he says 'the influence that the learner’s first language exerts over
the acquisition of a second language. He argues that transfer is governed by
learners’ perceptions about what is transferable and by their stage of development
in second learning. Moreover, Selinker (1971), Seligar (1988), and Ellis (1997)
argue that in learning a target language, learners construct their own interim rules
with the use of their first language knowledge, but only when they believe it will
help them in the learning task or when they have become sufficiently proficient in
the second language for transfer to be possible.
c. Intralingual Transfer
According to Delija and Koruti, intralingual error is the condition where
errors occur due to partial learning of the target language (2013: 1). They adds, as
cited from Brown (1987), that intralingual refers to the overgeneralization error
material to a present second language context. They also mention that intralingual
transfer can be attributed to the ignorance of rule restriction which according to
Richards and Sampson means “applying rules to contexts to which they do not
apply” (1974).
According to Ellis (1994: 59), overgeneralization errors appear when the
learner creates a deviant structure on the basis of other structures in the target
languages. This will involve the creation of one deviant structure in place of two
target language structures. As an example, a learner says “He will moves” where
English allows “He will move” and “He moves”.
3. Validity and Reliability of the Test
Since this research is a quantitative research, it always depends on the
measurement. There will be two essential criteria of the quality of any measuring
instrument: validity and reliability. The following is the further description of the
validity and reliability of a test.
a. Validity of the Test
In addition to be reliable, good measuring instruments should be valid
(Sprinthallet al, 1991: 37). Meaning to say that a test should actually measure what
it purports to measure. They further explain that it is important to remember that
instruments are valid only for a particular purpose. A test that has been validated
for one purpose cannot be assumed to be necessary valid for any other use unless it
has also been proven to be valid for that purpose. Donal Ary, Lucy Cheser Jacobs,
instrument itself but on the interpretation and meaning of the scores derived from
the instrument” (2002: 242). This research measures the students’ ability in
mastering the use of English prepositionforandto. Therefore, in order to be valid,
the test that will be conducted should be concerning the English prepositions for
andto.
According to Neuman (2011: 212), there are four types of measurement
validity, namely face validity, content validity, criterion validity, and construct
validity.Here are the explanations of each types.
i. Face Validity
Face validity is the most basic and easiest type of validity to achieve. Face
validity is a type of measurement validity in which an indicator “makes sense” as a
measure of test in the judgment of others, especially in the specific community.
ii. Content Validity
Content validity addresses this question: is the full content of a definition
represented in a measure? In this type of validity, the measurements should
represent all ideas or areas in the conceptual space. On other words, content validity
requires a test that represents all aspects of the conceptual definition of a construct.
iii. Criterion Validity
This type of measurement ability applies several standards or criteria in
order to point out the test accurately. The validity of a test is verified by comparing
it to another measure of the same construct in which a researcher has confidence.
This type has two subtypes, namely concurrent validity and predictive validity.
accepted measure to verify the indicator of a construct. Predictive validity is
measurement validity that relies on the occurrence of a future event or behavior that
is logically consistent to verify the indicator of a construct.
iv. Construct Validity
Construct validity is for measures with multiple indicators. It address this
question: if the measure is valid, do the various indicators operate in a consistent
manner? This measurement validity requires a definition with clearly specified
conceptual boundaries. This validity covers two subtypes of validity, namely
convergent validity and discriminant validity. Convergent validity is a type of
measurement validity for multiple indicators based on the idea that indicators of
one construct will act alike or converge. Discriminant validity is a type of
measurement validity for multiple indicators based on the idea that indicators of
different construct diverge.
b. Reliability of the Test
According to Richard C. Sprinthall, Gregory T. Schmutte, and Lee Sirois,
reliability refers to the consistency with which a test or instrument produces result
(1991: 34). They further highlight that the basic question addressed by reliability is
whether a test given at one time will give the same result if given at another time
under the same conditions. Neuman (2011: 208) also argues that measurement
reliability means that the numerical results an indicator produces do not vary
itself. To sum up, a test is called reliable when it is tested on a similar group in
similar condition, the result remains the same.
Ary et al assumes that reliability concerns with how consistently a
researcher measures whatever she/he measures (2002: 251). Moreover, they add
that the reliability won’t concern about the meaning and interpretation of the scores,
for they are more associated with the theory of validity. A measuring instrument
can be reliable without being valid. Nevertheless, it cannot be valid unless it is first
reliable. As an instance, a researcher decides to measure intelligence by determining
the circumference of the head. The measurements may be reliable (consistent from
time to time), yet this method will not be considered valid if the circumference of
the head does not correlate with any other criteria of intelligence nor is it predicted
by any theory intelligence. Regarding this research, the instrument (test) that will
be conducted might be reliable, yet it cannot be valid unless the instrument
correlates with the theory and function of preposition forand to or contribute the
functions of the prepositionsforandtowhich have been applied in this research.
In measuring the reliability of the test, the researcher uses one of the
methods, which is thesplit-half technique(Sprinthallet al, 1991: 35). Thesplit-half
techniqueof reliability is one kind of internal-consistency reliability, in which a test
requires only a single administration of one form of a test (Ary et al, 2002: 256).
The test is split into two halves, and correlates the individual’s scores on the two
halves; the first half (the odd-numbered items) was labelled X and the second half
product-moment coefficient formula to determine the reliability of the test
(Sugiyono, 2010: 255). The formula can be seen as follows.
Where ∑ (xy) = sum of the x times y scores
∑ (x²) = sum of the x squared scores
∑ (y²) = sum of the y squared scores
r = Pearson
Then, to indicate the reliability of the whole test, the Spearman-Brown
Prophecy formula is needed. The formula can be seen as follows:
r = 2r (half-test)
1 + r (half-test)
Where r = The Spearman-Brown’s coefficient of reliability
r (half-test) = The Pearson’s Correlation coefficient
According to Ary et al, researchers must inquire into the validity and
reliability of the scores derived from instruments (test) used in a study and must
include this information in the researcher’s thesis as a repost. Nevertheless, if the
data are not included with valid and reliable instruments, the readers might have
little faith in the results gained or in the conclusions based on the results (2002:
C. Theoretical Framework
Regarding the errors that contribute to the students’ difficulties in mastering
the prepositionsforandtothat should be figured out, several theories are applied.
Firstly, the theories of English prepositions for andto will be applied in order to
measure the mastery level of the sixth semester students of English Letters
Department in Sanata Dharma University in academic year 2015/2016. Thus, a test
should be conducted to measure the accuracy of the sixth semester students at
English Letters Department in mastering the prepositions offorandto.
Secondly, there are also theories of Indonesian prepositionsuntuk,kepada,
ke, buatandbagiand the language transfer that should be applied. These theories
of Indonesian prepositions are used to indicate if the Indonesian language as the
first language of the students will influence their second language learning. The
last, the theories of error in language acquisition are used to indicate what seems to
be the problems that will influence the students in mastering English prepositions
30 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
A. Object of the Study
The objects of this research were the sixth semester students of the
2015/2016 academic year, in English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma
University. The sixth semester students were chosen to be the object of this research
because the researcher intended to measure their ability in mastering the English
prepositionsforandto. Besides, the researcher also expected that the sixth semester
students had already mastered the use of each preposition as part of English
Grammar lesson that they had studied form first semester to fifth semester
(Structure I to Structure V).
B. Approach of the Study
The approach of the study applied in this research was the syntactic
approach. According to Guralnik, syntax is the study of the arrangement of words
as the elements in a sentence to show their relationship one another (1986: 1444).
Moreover, syntax can also be defined as the rules, which specify how words may
be combined with each other to produce grammatical and well-performed sentence
(Fromkin, 2000: 90). She also adds that syntax is made up of formal rules, which
are formulated in a precise way with clearly defined properties.
The syntactic approach was applied because this research dealt with the
Furthermore, this approach was applied to identify the usage of rules of both
prepositions in order to build a well-performed sentence.
C. Method of the Study
1. Data Collection
As mentioned previously, the objects of this research were the sixth
semester students at English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University. Due
to the fact that the object referred to a group of person, the researcher then used the
theory of population. According to Sprinthall et al, the term population (or
universe) refers to the entire group of persons, things, or events that shares at least
one common trait (1991: 27). They further highlight that
……..if a researcher wish to identify the population of college students, the factor of being a college student would be the common trait, and you would then have to list each and every such students in the entire world ─ a modest little assignment. Or if you wished to add another trait, you might limit your population to U.S. college students, or by adding a third trait, to U.S. college students attending state university. Obviously, the more traits you add, the more you limit the designated population…
It means that the more traits that can be shared among the population chosen to be
the object of a research, the more the researcher limit the populations of his object.
Regarding this statement, the researcher then chose the sixth semester students at
English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University as the object of this
research, for they shared some traits in common; they are students of English Letters
Department of the 2015/2016 academic year who are studying in Sanata Dharma
Throughout this research, the researcher decided to use a random sampling
technique for achieving representative samples from the total number of population.
Sprinthallet alstate that random sampling demands that each member of the entire
population must have an equal chance of being included, and that there is no
member of the population may be systematically excluded (1991: 28). Concerning
to this statement, the researcher chose the object of this research by considering
their equal traits, which is the students of English Letters Department in Sanata
Dharma University of the academic year 2015/2016.
Since this research was a quantitative research, a test should be
administered. According to Brown (2001: 384), a test is a method of measuring a
person’s ability or knowledge in a given domain. He further explains that:
“A test is first a method. It is a set of techniques, procedures, and items that constitute an instrument of some sort that requires performance or activity on the part of the test-taker (and sometimes on the part of the tester as well), the someone’s authenticity of pronunciation, or it may be quite explicit and structured, as in a multiple-choice technique in which correct responses have already been specified by some “objectives” means.” (2001: 384)
A test was administered by the researcher to comprehend the language
acquisition of using English prepositionsforandtoamong the students. Since a test
is commonly used as the instrument in collecting data to measure someone’s ability
or competence in particular environments or circumstances, the researcher then
decided to use this type of measurement instrument as the data collecting
instrument. The researcher therefore applied a diagnostic test since it was designed
to diagnose a particular aspect of language (Brown, 2001: 390). This kind of test
The test administered in this research was divided into two parts. The first
part of the test was gap-filling task. This type of test was designed to see whether
or not the students could differentiate the use of prepositionsforandto. This
gap-filling task was also used to measure grammatical form and meaning of each
preposition (Purpura, 2004: 135). In this part, the students were required to fill the
blanks in the given sentences either using prepositionfororto. The objective of this
part was the students were able to show their ability in using the prepositionsfor
andtoin a sentence.
The second part was structure recognition test in form of multiple choice.
According to Lado, this structure recognition test presented utterances/sentences to
the students which contain the structure problem and to determine whether or not
the students understand the use of certain structure (1961: 150). In this part, the
students were required to choose (aor b) which English translations was the best
for the Indonesian sentences. The objectives of this part was the students were able
to make a distinction between the rules of Indonesians prepositionsuntuk,kepada,
ke, buatandbagiif they were translated intofororto. To make a better view of the
test that was conducted in this research, the researcher showed the distribution of
functions of the prepositionsforandtothat were used in the test as follows.
Table 3.1 The Blueprint of the Distribution of the Prepositionsfor
andtoApplied in the Test
No.
To show who is intended to have or use something or where something
is intended to be put
-No.
3 To concern somebody/something -
-4 To show someone/something as a
representative 12
-5 To show who is employed (by) 8 3
6 To reveal the meaning of something 6,14
-7 To support somebody/something -
-8 To show purpose or function -
-9 To show a reason or cause -
-10 To obtain something 3
-11 To express an exchange for
something -
-12 To consider what can be expected
from somebody/something 2,15
-13 To express the better, happier, etc.
feeling of something - 4
14 To show where
somebody/something is going 16
-15 To show a length of time 5
-16
To show that something is arranged or intended to happen at a particular
time
18
-17
To show how difficult, necessary, pleasant, etc. something is that somebody might do or has done
19
-18 To show who can or should do
something - 5
19 To To show the direction of something;
-No.
(to) the something (of something) located in the direction mentioned
from something
-
-21 To show something is as far as
something 7,20
-22 To reach a particular state 1,21
-23 To show the end or limit of a range
or period of time 9,22
-24 To show (something) before the
start of something - 6
25 To show the person or thing that
receives something 23
-26 To show the person or thing that is
affected by an action -
-27 To show that two things are
attached or connected 4
-28 To show a relationship between one
person or thing and another - 1
29 To show something is directed
toward; concerning - 2
30 To introduce the second part of a
comparison or ratio -
-31 To show a quantity or rate -
-32 To show an honor towards
somebody/something -
-34 To show somebody’s attitude or
reaction to something 11
-35 To show what somebody’s opinion
