The autistic society
Yehuda Baruch
*School of Management, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
Received 27 January 1999; received in revised form 30 November 1999; accepted 12 January 2000
Abstract
Information technology has a profound effect on individuals, organizations, and society. Whereas most of its impact is positive, there might be some negative side-effects. This paper argues that to a certain extent, society has developed in a way that resembles autism, which is concerned with the manner people react and communicate. In particular, excessive use of IT and computers might cause Western societies to acquire characteristics of autism. Signs of this can be found in a variety of domains, such as telecommuting or Internet addiction. Cultural considerations must be put in place if we wish to keep a balance between private and public life. Implications for individuals, organizations and society are discussed.#2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords:Information systems; Information technology; Autism; Communication; Society
1. Introduction
Autism is a phenomenon primarily found in chil-dren. It is concerned with the manner in which they react and communicate with their environment. It seems that modern society has developed in a way that resembles autism. In this paper, the phenomenon is explored and its consequences are considered at individual, organizational, and societal levels.
Kanner Leo was the ®rst to identify what is now known as the autistic syndrome [17]. He observed it in children, and described its characteristics. The ®rst two of them, which are suf®cient for diagnosis, are the profound lack of affective emotional contact with other people and intense insistence on sameness. Other features are performing bizarre and elaborate repetitive routines, being mute or having a marked abnormality of speech, fascination with and dexterity
in manipulating objective, high levels of visuo-spacial skills or rote memory, in contrast to learning dif®cul-ties in other areas, and an attractive, alert, and intel-ligent appearance. In the 1970s, Lorna Wing found that autism could take a wider form [50], an assertion accepted later by the American Psychiatric Associa-tion [9]. Concurrent views see autism as a result of problems of development. Recently, more study has been devoted to adults suffering from autism [15,31]. Lately, the two prime symptoms of autism have been enunciated as extreme isolation from human contact and anxiety that requires that the surrounding physical environment remains unchanged. These appear to be the basic elements in most de®nitions of Autism (cf. [44]). Wing [51] identi®ed a `Triad': absence or impairment of social interaction, commu-nication, and developmental imagination. She also found a narrow, rigid, and repetitive pattern of activ-ities and interests. People with autistic disorders are impaired in their ability to distinguish between the important and the trivial.
*Tel.:44-1603-593-341; fax:44-1603-593-343.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Baruch).
Two years ago, Peiperl and Baruch [38] suggested that phenomena such as the virtual organization and extending telecommuting might create an autistic society where people are detached from one another. They stated:
``One view is that the society that results from these new ways of working may be severely disabled when it comes to interpersonal com-munication: an ``autistic society'' in which we become unaccustomed to dealing with others except in purely transactional ways; a global village of poor communicators.''
This paper adds ways in which contemporary society is becoming autistic. The analysis and discus-sion focuses on the parallel between the individual phenomenon and developments in the industrial society, while acknowledging the limitation of the parallel. It seems that there is growing evidence that the syndrome found in autistic children is now found in society. In an autistic society, individuals are iso-lated from social institutions. They are restrained (due to self-chosen patterns) from using traditional and effective modes of communication; the use of modern methods creates a lack of affective emotional contact with other people. This resembles the ®rst character-istic of Autism: a lack of affective emotional contact with others. People subject themselves to repetitive, sometimes alien cycles of behavior when involved with computer systems Ð which re¯ect the second characteristic of Autism: self-chosen intense insis-tence on sameness. In addition, one fundamental physical clinical identi®cation for child autism is avoidance of eye-to-eye contact, an element that is an inherent component of IT communication through the Net.
In this paper, Autism is not merely taken as a clinical diagnosis from individual to society level, but is primarily used as a metaphor, in helping to understand the phenomenon and its implications for organizations and society. The advantage of using metaphors in understanding organizations has been well demonstrated in the literature [28,29,30]. They are widely applied in contemporary studies (cf. [5,12]) and their use can facilitate change by helping to make the strange seem familiar [40]. In similar vein, de Vries [8] offered to apply clinical approaches to the study of organizations. This way, autism is not necessarily used as a parallel between humans and
society (otherwise it would imply that IT would make society totally autistic), but as a metaphor to support understanding of the activities. This adds new perspective.
Dunn [10] claims that both autistic children and engineers have similarities, which he attributes to the possible link between autism and the psychological pro®le of engineers. Nevertheless, very few academic studies have put autism at the individual level under investigation (see [1] for an exception). More interest has been exhibited when referring to the society level. As many have suggested (e.g. [47]), our society is becoming remarkably technology oriented. Organiza-tions try to engineer any process or product when feasible, and in some cases this enables better ef®-ciency (Hammer and Champy re-engineering process concept is a good example [11]). Ritzer [43] termed this phenomenon: `The McDonaldization of Society'. Control through non-human technology, he argues, is the irrationality of rationality, when `rational systems are often unreasonable'.
The main physical element that has turned our society autistic is IT, the use of computers, sometimes as a buffer between people and the environment. IT and its utilization have become an integrated part of modern life [27,34]. For example, telecommuters indicate this detachment in an explicit way [2,32,33], whereas Hochschild argued that sometime the work is taken as a shelter from home and family. Though Kling [19] summarized several social con-troversies about computerization, he failed to refer to this aspect. Computerized machinery does not only support cognitive processes; it can serve mechanical elements too: in many cases, the main factor in determining whether a production line belt should be operated by humans or robots is economic, subject only to ®nancial calculation. In relation to education, in particular of young children, Healy [13] challenged the apparent contribution of IT. While providing a balanced perspective, Healy argued that the bene®ts of using IT in schooling are outweighed by the negative impact on childhood development.
They acknowledged, though, that communication mediated by technology ®lters out communication cues and changes both intrapersonal and interpersonal variables. One possible danger is misuse or abuse of the communication system, such as uninhibited com-munication in the absence of familiar social context [46,48]. On the other hand, new technologies may force evolution of their own social context, e.g. by creating a virtual community [41].
2. Illustrative cases
The following are certain phenomena indicating the process by which contemporary society become more autistic.
2.1. The IT revolution and its hazards
By the start of the 1980s, concerns were being raised about the possible impact of computer-mediated communication. Kiesler et al. [18] explored its socio-psychological aspects. They argued that computer communication might weaken social in¯u-ence by the absin¯u-ence of non-verbal communication or lack of immediacy of response. What they called `social anonymity' is a strong indication of the depersonalizing of technology that might occur because of computer mediated communication. At another study, Pinsonneault and Rivard found [39] that heavy users of IT had become over-specialized, and suggested that this might detach them from other aspects of life. They argued an Icarus paradox to explain the rise and fall of several modern organiza-tions because people become over-occupied or even obsessed with activities at which they excel, neglect-ing other qualities that should be further developed (see also [26]).
2.2. The Internet communication
The Internet was ®rst developed by the United States government during the cold war as a commu-nication network spanning governmental of®ces (par-ticularly the Department of Defense), several universities, and research institutes. It was designed for military preparedness, and for scientists to experi-ment and share information, but soon became a
popular attraction. Numbers soared in the 1980's, and the trend is continuing [16]. With such popularity and millions of users, some people have become addicted to its use. Young [52] de®ned Web addiction as `staying on-line for 38 h a week or more in leisure time', with symptoms include: lying to family or colleagues about time spent on the Internet; restless-ness, irritability and anxiety when not engaged in computer activities; a neglect of social obligations; and a consistent failure to quit. Using these criteria, Young claimed that one-in-nine US Internet users is addicted.
2.3. E-mail in the work-place
The use of e-mail is a very direct and cost-effective way of communication. Among its positive aspects are organizational ef®ciency and increased communica-tion which have both direct and indirect impact, including ¯ow of information outside the formal authorized channels [23]. E-mail was ®rst widely used in academia, and has now spread worldwide. Markus [24] found two con¯icting factors that characterize the use of e-mail within a medium-size organization: a positive one that Markus called social closeness (between managers and subordinates), and a negative one of depersonalization. The latter occurs because people feel that their new workplace is less personal, that they are invisible, or that the e-mail allows people to avoid personal contact. It may lead to misuse and even abuse of the system such as using e-mail communication for bullying [37] or other anti-social behavior (e.g. cyber-stalking).
2.4. Telecommuting
Telecommuting occurs when an employee performs all or most of his or her work in a domiciliary or local base, physically separate from the location of the employer.
Wing's triad characterizes telecommuting (or tele-working): the human touch between people is missing in telecommuting situation. Information is delivered, but the vehicle can only deliver part of the message. People rely mostly on electronic communication, which though valuable, is quite narrow in its delivery of other types of message. Body language, gestures, and similar essential ingredients of communication are lost. The rational, logical element may be pre-served, but the elements of emotion and feeling are missing. To persuade we need not only the head, but the heart too. This may help to explain the limitation in the spread of telecommuting.
2.5. Electronic university
Some traditional university studies are being replaced by `distance learning'. The British Open University, for example, has the largest number of MBA students across Europe (more than 20,000 of the total 157,450 degree students; this places it as the eighth largest among the distance-learning mega-uni-versities [6]). Time, when students and tutors meet for face-to-face discussions, is very limited. Recently, an additional step was taken to detach lecturers from students: the ``wired'' university is a `university on the Web'. Such new methods of study are applicable and effective for some who are unable to attend physically, but it is now suggested that such study could be the preferred mode (e.g. life long learning initiative in the UK).
2.6. Computer widows
Many have described the ``computer widows'' effect Ð a phenomenon when people become attached to their computers and practically abandon family life, being addicted to continued working on their compu-ters and even neglecting sleep. A further idea has been presented by Hochschild [14], who considers `com-puter widows' as a general workaholic syndrome, and has argued that work sometimes serves as a sanctuary
space for people running away from family duties and burdens, thus missing the healthy rhythm of life. In doing so, people break the rhythm of the home and create a bizarre family life, a movement that detaches them from the traditional ways.
2.7. Direct marketing
Today, we can buy most products and services on the Web. This can be an effective and cost-saving practice but it can also be inadequate. Some consump-tion products may be un®t for indirect purchase; for example, buying a pet, a new perfume, and even ¯owers, may require a sensual element, missing from the electronic-mediated medium. One-to-one inter-action with a customer may be an innovative way of marketing [7,49] but may challenge the management of customer data.
2.8. Obsession
When using IT, people often invent a total virtual reality unrelated to real life or developmental pro-cesses. This may be obsessive. Autistic children may retreat to mechanic activities unrelated to real life or development (e.g. playing with water, switching the light on and off). In the autistic society, people can become obsessed with almost anything.
2.9. Culture
In his bookCity of Bits, Mitchell [27] discusses the advantages of advanced technology. He praises the cellular phone and the WalkmanTM. The TV, radio, or Walkman, allows us to stay at home rather than go to a concert or a play, he claims. How can a person compare the richness of a theater with the unidimen-sionality of a Walkman? In a traditional theater, the audience are enriched by sight, colors, voices, all telling us a story that technology cannot (and probably will never) match.
2.9.1. Difficulties or problems of diagnosis
is no clear boundary between an autistic and a normal child, but there is a spectrum to characterize this phenomenon. But when several symptoms occur, it is an indication. In a similar way, we can say that societies have a tendency for social autism.
The `Triad' identi®ed by Wing may serve as a base for a societal diagnosis: these are absence or impair-ment of social interaction, communication, and devel-opment of imagination. The ®rst may indeed serve as a diagnostic tool. IT may prevent people from social contacts, in the sense of human touch and face-to-face interrelations. The second, communication, is impaired, when IT restricts the rich ways in which people send and receive messages via electronic com-munication. Lastly, parallelism is less likely in IT when considering development of imagination. As with other aspects, IT brings many bene®ts to human-ity, one of them is serving as a new mechanism for promotion of innovation and imagination. However, it is yet to be determined whether this does not prevent or suppress other possible ways (e.g. through artistic development).
2.9.2. Scope
Very few children suffer from autism, but the number is growing alarmingly. The message presented here does not refer to all IT users, uses, or IT con-sequences. However, while appreciating the contribu-tion of IT (such as saving people from repetitive work, enabling easy and cost-effective ways of communica-tion and other bene®ts), its potentially dangerous outcomes should be acknowledged. When taken to an extreme, IT might degrade the human qualities of thinking, feeling, and behaving. The dangers grow apparent as it becomes easier and cheaper to use IT on a large scale.
2.9.3. Prevention, treatment, and cure
When we have two similar phenomena in different settings, we may draw from one case to the other. We may bene®t by developing treatment for society through learning about ways to cure the individual. Unfortunately, there is not yet any cure for autism. Thus, a simple conclusion might end in frustration: our society is doomed. However, there are levels of sever-ity. Society does not suffer from extreme autism. Most communication is still conventional. It is only the beginning of a threat.
Wing argues that specialized therapies can be useful. She mentioned music, aroma, relaxation, massage, dance, drama, etc. All strongly touch the sensual element of the human being. The common denominator of these is their active, artistic nature. All can be applied to treat autism at both the societal and organizational levels. A party, outing, or picnic for an organization is a way to enhance human relationship between people working in the same place but otherwise detached. At a society or national level, politicians can promote cultural activ-ities for all.
3. Discussion and conclusions
Kiesler et al. suggested that ``social psychological research might contribute to a deeper understanding of electronic communication speci®cally and of computers and technological change in society more generally''. However, theoretical frameworks have only just started to develop (see [45] for the impact of technology and [35] for the individual level). Nicholson argues that humans suffer the conse-quences of a poor ®t between their inherited natures and the constructed environments in organizational society. The match or mismatch between people values, beliefs and attitudes, and their organization has won considerable attention, but not for an autistic society.
Society and, in particular, organizations should utilize and exploit the opportunities offered by IT but be aware of the new threats offered and produced by this new technology. There is a strong need for a balanced managerial approach, in a way that will not put too much emphasis on IT and communication methods that detach people from one another and their work-related environment. Excessive use of IT may bring about social isolation of people. Yet social isolation could be used for re¯ection and self-devel-opment. Indeed literature and history abounds with examples of individuals, who as `rebels' isolated themselves from the social institutions. However, these are the exceptions, and full, widespread social isolation should not be perceived as the way forward for humanity.
form an essential part of life. The idea of a computer for every child may not be as good as politicians tend to think. Countries such as Japan gain their high achievements in mathematical education without introducing IT into the lower age group. In the game of life and work, high technology creates both winners and losers [42]. Moreover, the impact is not restricted to IT, as suggested also by Kraemer and Danziger [20], who have focused on IT and the work-life of informa-tion workers, their impact on control, social interac-tions and work environment.
Birkerts has stated that human beings, as a species, are becoming shallower, and that by placing our faith in the Web, we forget the difference between com-munication in the instrumental sense and communica-tion in the affective, soul-oriented sense [3]. The author agrees with this notion, and shares the concern for the future with respect to human communication. Indeed: which approach should be adopted by indi-viduals, organizations, and nations? All three levels are interconnected, and much is left to the manage-ment of organizations to lead the way in a responsible manner.
Technology, including IT, brings blessings to humanity, and enables people to bene®t enormously. The aim of this paper was not to negate IT, but to point out certain hazards that can be associated with its extensive use.
3.1. The future
What direction would lead humanity to a better future? It seems that the society is standing on the edge of an abyss, and a voice is urging us to go one step further. Are there other ways? Some suggest a return to the older, traditional ways of life. Such a response seems to be a dead-end. Some solutions reject modern technology, trying to stick to the past in both values and materialistic ways. It is very dif®cult to avoid the impact of technology on our material life, and IT is one aspect that cannot be ignored, particularly in the global context. Another way is trying to live in peace with IT, use it, not excessively, but alongside a variety of communication methods in order to remain balanced. When people enjoy the bene®ts of telecom-muting, they should also strive to keep in line with those with whom they work. Recently, it has been said that the best results of effective telecommuting would
come from a balanced mix of telecommuting and work in the of®ce [2]. If people ®nd themselves sur®ng the Net several hours each day they may better ®nd other ways of entertainment, involving both physical move-ment and social interactions.
As in Physics, whenever there are forces pulling in one direction, there will be counter-forces. These operate not only in the physical realm but also when making decisions [22]. The forces that modern IT applies to people might work in the direction of individualism and detachment, with strong association to masculine qualities. Counter-forces occur because people still want to be together, to work and live in a community and to share their feelings with others, thereby minimizing the negative impact of the autistic Society Syndrome.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Prof. Mary Jo Hatch of Cran®eld School of Management and Dr. John Sil-lince, Royal Holloway, two anonymous reviewers and the Editor for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper.
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Business School. He holds a BSc in Electronic Engineering (Ben Gurion, Israel), MSc and DSc in Management and Behavioral Sciences (The Technion, Israel). After being a project manager in high technology industry he encounter career in the academia. His research interests are concerned with the impact of technology, in particular the information technology, on the management of
people at work. Areas of expertise are HRM, mainly career management systems and International HRM, teleworking, use and misuse of e-mail, and organizational culture. He published in these fields in a number of journals, including Human Relations, Organizational Dynamics, Human Resource Management and
