Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol09.Issue4.1998:

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Development and implementation of environmental

monitoring and information systems for water

resources

Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr

Ce ntre fo r Future -o rie nte d Studie s , Abakaliki, Ebo nyi State , Nige ria

Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth

9 / 4 [1998] 1 5 3 –1 5 9 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0956-6163] Attempts to examine the principles which lead to the exploration procedures to obviate environmental and natural resource degradation. The present and future state of water resources in both developed and developing countries are inextricably linked to the general behav-iour of the economy and political, social and adminis-trative structures. Globally, emphasis in water provision is systematically placed on potable water, but a great proportion of the world’s population’s water resources are wells, ponds, boreholes, streams, rivers, seas and oceans which are susceptible to contamination and pollu-tion by natural and anthro-pogenic sources – industrial emissions, municipal waste sites, parasitic organisms, agriculture, etc. Suggests several developments and changes in global information and monitoring to stem fur-ther deterioration of water quality and to establish an acceptable state of the resource for the future.

Introduction

Tim ely in for m a t ion on t h e con d it ion of t h e en v ir on m en t in a cou n t r y, a n d n eigh b ou r in g cou n t r ies, is essen t ia l if com p lex en v ir on m en t a l issu es, su ch a s w a t er a n d la n d d e gr a d a t ion a r e t o b e over com e. Mu ch of t h e in for -m a t ion on la r ge-sca le en v ir on -m en t a l con d i-t ion s is fr om d iver se loca l m on ii-t or in g p r oce-d u r es t h a t m u st b e sy n t h esiseoce-d t o oce-d ea l w it h b r oa d er issu es (St even s, 1994). For m on it or -in g p u r p oses, st u d ies h ave eva lu a t ed a n d a ssessed t h e st a t u s a n d t r en d s of sp ecifi c in d ica t or s of con d it ion t o m on it or a n a t ion ’s r esou r ces u sin g a cla ssifi ca t ion sy st em (E r n st

et a l., 1995); r esou r ce in ven t or y a n d m on it or in g p r ogr a m m e for b a selin e d a t a d evelop -m en t (Mor r ison a n d Ma r cot , 1995); t o ob t a in a m or e sen sit ive a n d r e p r esen t a t ive m et h od for t h e su sce p t ib ilit y of p la n t sp ecies t o a t m os-p h er ic os-p ollu t ion (Soa r es et a l., 1995); a n d t h e p ot en t ia l of p la n t s a s in d ica t or s for m on it or -in g sp a t ia l a n d t em p or a l va r ia t ion s -in en v i-r on m en t a l q u a lit y of fi-r esh w a t ei-r ecosy st em (Ca t t a n eo et a l., 1995).

T h e in t e gr a t ion of p r oced u r es a n d sy st em s for d a t a m a n a gem en t in t h e en v ir on m en t a l la b or a t or y h a s n ot yet b een r ea lised for la b o-r a t oo-r ies o-r ely in g on off-t h e-sh elf t ech n ology (Sh a ck elfor d et a l., 1991). Qu a lit y a ssu r a n ce a n d con t r ol m u st b e cr it ica lly d iscu ssed in a w a t er r esou r ce p r oject . T h e im p lem en t a t ion of q u a lit y con t r ol p r ogr a m m es m u st go b eyon d t h e fi eld sa m p lin g p r oced u r es, la b or a -t or y s-t a n d a r d m e-t h od s, a n d b o-t h in -t er - a n d in t r a - la b or a t or y t est s a s r e ga r d s t h e m od a l-it y t o d evelop a n d m a in t a in en v ir on m en t a l a n d n a t u r a l r esou r ce d a t a b a ses. T h e ava ila ble in for m a t ion m a n a gem en t t ech n ology for t h e d evelop m en t of t h e st a t e-of-t h e-scien ce sy st em s in clu d es r ela t ion a l d a t a b a se m a n a ge-m en t soft w a r e, sp r ea d sh eet u t ilit y in t e gr a t ed in t o t h e d a t a b a se m a n a gem en t soft w a r e, h y p er t ext , a n d exp er t sy st em s (Wa lt h er, 1992). Design er s of en v ir on m en t a l in for m a t ion sy st em s n eed t o com b in e t h ese soft w a r e t ech n ologies w it h gr a p h ics in ea sy -t o-u se p a ck a ges (Wa lt h er, 1992).

A p h a sed im p lem en t a t ion a p p r oa ch m ay a lso b e h elp fu l t o d evelop a n en v ir on m en t a l in for m a t ion sy st em (F r a ser a n d H od gson ,

1995). T h e fi r st p h a se in clu d es t r a d it ion a l elem en t s w h ich for m com p on en t s in t h e p r ocesses of m on it or in g a n d a ssessm en t . For in t er p r et ive wor k , t h e id en t ifi a ble a n a ly t ica l t ools in clu d e: st a t ist ics, m od ellin g, a n d geogr a p h ic in for m a t ion sy st em (GIS). A GIS is “a n or ga n ised collect ion of com p u t er h a r d w a r e, soft w a r e, geogr a p h ic d a t a , a n d p er son -n el d esig-n ed t o efficie-n t ly ca p t u r e, st or e, u p d a t e, m a n ip u la t e, a n a ly se, a n d d isp lay a ll for m s of geogr a p h ica lly r efer en ced in for m a -t ion ” (F r iza d o a n d Sa -t -t ler, 1993). T h e secon d p h a se follow s t h e in for m a t ion fl ow b eyon d p r oject r e p or t in g, t o exa m in e t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess. It is n ecessa r y t o in clu d e ot h er for m s of k n ow led ge b eyon d t h e st r ict ly scien t ifi c, w h er e t h e d evelop m en t of m u lt i-sect or a l d ecision s h ave t o b e m a d e. T h e t h ir d p h a se st r et ch es t h e p r ocess of d ecision -m a k in g t o t h e st a ge of p olicy d evelop -m en t a n d im p lem en t a t ion . T h is is a ch ieved by in clu d in g exp er t sy st em s a s a dva n ced d ecision su p p or t sy st em s, w h ich offer t h e m a n -a ger t h e p ossib ilit y t o t est d iffer en t h y p ot h e-ses a n d p olicy op t ion s b efor e com m it m en t (F r a ser a n d H od gson , 1995).

Wit h r e ga r d t o r esou r ce issu es in b ot h d evelop in g a n d d evelop ed cou n t r ies, t h e sig-n ifi ca sig-n ce of set t isig-n g a ch iev a b le a sig-n d esig-n for ce-a ble sect or ce-a l cr it er ice-a ce-a n d st ce-a n d ce-a r d s for in d u st r ia l, a gr icu lst u r a l, a n d d r in k in g w a st er su p -p lies ca n b e a d d r essed w it h r es-p ect t o b ot h u sa ge a n d efflu en t cr it er ia . Also, GIS h a s b ecom e a sign ifi ca n t t ool in u n d er st a n d in g a n d in t er p r et in g la r ge-sca le in t er r ela t ed n a t u r a l p r ocesses. P r ev iou sly, t h e u se of GIS w a s con st r a in ed by exor b it a n t cost s for h a r d -w a r e, soft -w a r e a n d p er son n el. T h e a cq u isi-t ion of d a isi-t a in d igiisi-t a l for m w a s a lso a n in h ib it in g fa ct or. As cost s w er e r ed u ced , m or e p ow er fu l com p u t er s ca u sed a m ovem en t of GIS soft w a r e t o t h e m icr ocom p u t er /

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Chrys anthus Chukwuma, Sr De ve lo pme nt and

imple me ntatio n o f

e nviro nme ntal mo nito ring and info rmatio n syste ms fo r wate r re so urc e s

9 / 4 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 5 3 –1 5 9

T h is p a p er a t t em p t s t o exa m in e t h e p r in cip les w h ich lea d t o t h e exp lor a t ion p r o-ced u r es t o obv ia t e en v ir on m en t a l a n d n a t u r a l r esou r ce d e gr a d a t ion , su ch a s w a t er a n d la n d , a n d h ow t o r esp on d t o t h em . A cr it ica l t on e in d efi n in g t h e m a gn it u d e of p r oblem s r ela t ed t o en v ir on m en t m on it or in g a n d in for -m a t ion sy st e-m s a n d t h e en a ct in g of a p p r op r i-a t e cou r ses of i-a ct ion r eq u ir es i-a u n iver si-a l r esp on se. Mon it or in g p r ov id es d a t a on h ow a cer t a in fea t u r e or p h en om en on of in t er est h a s t em p or a l va r ia t ion , w it h sp ecifi c sp a t ia l d ist r ibu t ion . A b a la n ced in for m a t ion sy st em t h a t is w ell-in t e gr a t ed in t o a cou n t r y ’s d eci-sion -m a k in g p r ocess w ill n eed t o b e m or e a ct ive in n et wor k s of r esea r ch a n d t ech n ology t h a t t r a n scen d t h e r esp on sible or ga n iza t ion s in t h e sp ecifi c cou n t r y. T h e sy st em s p r esen t ed h ave b een select ed t o m a k e p r ov ision s a s exa m p les, r a t h er t h a n com p let e cover a ge.

Evaluation and assessment of

selected environmental parameters

E n v ir on m en t a l p r ot ect ion t o m eet t h e n eed s of a r a p id ly -gr ow in g p op u la t ion a n d a m or e or less st a ble p op u la t ion r eq u ir e b et t er d evel-op m en t a n d m a n a gem en t of ver y lim it ed r esou r ces, su ch a s w a t er a n d la n d . T h e eco-n om ic gr ow t h of eco-n eigh b ou r ieco-n g cou eco-n t r ies is ser iou sly t h r ea t en ed by w a t er q u a lit y d e gr a -d a t ion , a s w ell a s loss a n -d -d e gr a -d a t ion of a gr icu lt u r a l la n d . T h ese p r oblem s h ave con -t in u ou sly wor sen ed b eca u se of in cr ea sed w a t er p ollu t ion , excessive a gr och em ica l con su m p t ion , u r b a n a r ea en cr oa ch m en t , a n d in efficien t ir r iga t ion p r a ct ices. Coa st a l w a t er p ollu t ion con st it u t es a sever e con st r a in t t h a t a dver sely a ffect s t h e d evelop m en t p ot en t ia l of t h e t ou r ism a n d m a r in e r esou r ces of sever a l n a t ion s. De gr a d a t ion of a ir q u a lit y p r eva ils in p r in cip a l cit ies, a n d a ir p ollu t ion p oses a ser iou s t h r ea t t o t h e cou n t r y ’s in va lu a ble h ist or ic m on u m en t s. Sever a l effor t s t o d ea l w it h t h ese en v ir on m en t a l p r oblem s w er e, t o a cer t a in ext en t , gover n m en t in it ia t ed . T h e m a gn it u d e a n d u r gen cy of t h e p r oblem s d em a n d coh er en t glob a l st r a t e gies t o en d en v ir on m en t a l d e gr a d a t ion .

T h e d esign of a n effect ive en v ir on m en t a l m on it or in g a n d in for m a t ion sy st em for w a t er r esou r ces n eed s in for m a t ion a b ou t :

• t h e k in d s, q u a n t it ies, sou r ces a n d d ist r ibu -t ion of m a -t er ia ls en -t er in g ou r en v ir on m en -t ; • t h e effect s of t h ese su b st a n ces on b iod iver

-sit y a n d va r iou s m ed ia ;

• sp a t ia l a n d t em p or a l d ist r ibu t ion in con cen t r a t ion a n d im p a ct , a s w ell a s t h e fa ct or s r ela t ed t o t h e ch a n ges; a n d

• t h e cost s, w ay s a n d m ea n s for t h e m od ifi ca -t ion of -t h ese in p u -t s, con cen -t r a -t ion s, effec-t s a n d t r en d s.

i. Land and water resources

It h a s b een gen er a lly su ggest ed t h a t econ om ic a ct iv it ies of a n in cr ea sin g wor ld p op u la t ion t en d t o t h r ea t en a ssim ila t ive en v ir on m en t a l ca p a cit y, t h er eby st im u la t in g in t er est in t h e con ce p t of en v ir on m en t a l ca r r y in g ca p a cit y. As t h e dy n a m ics of la n d t r a n sfor m a t ion s p r om ot e t h e a u gm en t a t ion of in for m a t ion t ech n ologies su ch a s sa t ellit e r em ot e sen sin g, for a p r ecise v iew of ea r t h -sy st em p r ocesses, t h e volu m e of t h e gen er a t ed in for m a t ion sy st em s a n d t h e h igh level of exp er t ise n eces-sa r y t o in t er p r et a n d t r a n sla t e t h ese d a t a a r e d eb ilit a t in g fa ct or s for effect ive a n d t im ely la n d -m a n a gem en t d ecision m a k in g (Lein , 1995).

T h e m a in t en a n ce of good w a t er q u a lit y is t h e goa l in ever y su r fa ce w a t er sou r ce p r ot ec-t ion p r ogr a m m e. Gr ou n dw a ec-t er q u a liec-t y is a ffect ed by a lm ost a ll u b iq u it ou s societ a l a ct iv it y, t h u s m a k in g gr ou n dw a t er p r ot ect ion com p lex, a n d of b ot h d om est ic a n d glob a l im p or t a n ce. T h e p r ot ect ion of gr ou n dw a t er q u a lit y ca n in volve low er cost s a n d b e less cu m b er som e t h a n t h e r est or a t ion of a n a q u ifer t h a t is a lr ea dy p ollu t ed (Ly n ch et a l., 1994). A st ea dy evolu t ion is ext a n t in p r oced u r es for oced esign in g sy st em s t o ob t a in in for -m a t ion on t h e b eh av iou r of en v ir on -m en t a l w a t er q u a lit y (Wa r d et a l., 1990).

T h is evolu t ion com m en ced w it h sit e-sp ecifi c effor t s t o ob t a in in for m a t ion t o a d d r ess sp ecifi c p r oblem s a n d la t er in cr ea sed in scop e t o in volve la r ge d om est ic, r e gion a l a n d glob a l or ga n iza t ion s t o a ssess w a t er q u a lit y b eh av iou r w it h in t h eir ju r isd ict ion s. T h e k n ow led ge b ein g a cq u ir ed is m a d e ava il-a ble il-a s p u blicil-a t ion s in se p il-a r il-a t e r eseil-a r ch su b ject a r ea s. In in st a n ces of gr ou n dw a t er con t a m in a t ion (a n d ot h er en v ir on m en t a l m ed ia ) le gisla t ive p r ocess m u st b e in p la ce – eit h er a p p ly in g r em ed ia t ion , bu t a t t h e m in im u m isola t in g t h e sou r ce of con t a m in a -t ion , or u se-or ien -t ed m in im isa -t ion of d a m a ge a ft er a n a ssessm en t of t h e r isk p ot en t ia l. A p r op er m ea su r e for t h ese a ct ion s is t o exp lor e a r ea s of p r ob a ble con t a m in a t ion s or t o in ves-t iga ves-t e a ccid en ves-t s of ves-t h e d isch a r ge of con ves-t a m i-n a i-n t s.

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a ssessm en t of ob ser va t ion d a t a . T h is n ecessit a t es p r op er q u a lit y a ssu r a n ce a n d m on it or in g of su ccess in t h e fi eld of con su lt in g a n d a ssessm en t . A com p u t er -b a sed in for m a t ion sy st em cou ld -b e p er t in en t in t h ese exp lor a t ion s t o elim in a t e t h e w ea k p oin t in r em ed ia t ion (Tou ssa in t a n d Br u n s, 1995).

In a d d it ion , sim u la t ion of gr ou n dw a t er fl ow a n d p r esen ce of con t a m in a n t s in t h e su b su r -fa ce en v ir on m en t is a m a jor p h a se of m ost en v ir on m en t a l a ssessm en t a n d sit e r em ed ia -t ion s-t u d ies; a n d -t h ese p r ov id e in for m a -t ion on sp a t ia l a n d t em p or a l d ist r ibu t ion s of con t a m in a n t s in t h e su b su r fa ce m ed ia . T h is in for -m a t ion -m ay b e va lu a ble in con d u ct in g exp osu r e a ssessm en t st u d ies. GIS sign ifi ca n t ly sim p lifi es t h e t a sk s of exp osu r e a n a ly -sis by p r ov id in g a p la t for m in w h ich layer ed , sp a t ia lly -d ist r ibu t ed d a t a b a ses a r e ea sily m a n ip u la t ed b eca u se sp a t ia l a n d t em p or a l d ist r ibu t ion s of b ot h ch em ica l con cen t r a t ion s a n d exp osed p op u la t ion s m ay ca u se d ifficu lt y in t h e t a sk of in t e gr a t ed exp osu r e a n a ly sis (Ma slia et a l., 1994). Geogr a p h ica lly -r ela t ed in for m a t ion is r eq u ir ed for sever a l com p o-n eo-n t s of a o-n io-n t e gr a t ed gr ou o-n d w a t er q u a lit y m a n a gem en t p r ogr a m m e, su ch a s gr ou n d w a t er m on it or in g p la n n in g, p r ior it isa t ion of p ollu t ion sou r ces, u se of p er m it s a n d in sp ec-t ion s for sou r ce con ec-t r ol, a n d p la n n in g a n d com p let ion of r em ed ia l a ct ion s. T h ese ele-m en t s ca n b e r ein for ced by GIS, coele-m b in ed w it h d elin ea t ion of w ell-h ea d p r ot ect ion a r ea s, p r ior it isa t ion of ext a n t con t a m in a n t sou r ces a n d eva lu a t ion of p r op osed ch a n ges in la n d u sa ge.

T h e GIS t ech n ology m a k es p r ov ision for t h e a n a ly sis a n d v isu a lisa t ion of sp a t ia l d a t a . Lin k in g GIS w it h con t a m in a n t / sou r ce p r ior it isa t ion p r ov id es a st r a t e gic t ool for p la n n in g t a r get ed gr ou n dw a t er m on it or in g p r ogr a m m es, id en t ify in g p r op er m a n a ge-m en t or ge-m it iga t ion effor t s, ge-m in ige-m isin g t h e in t r od u ct ion of con t a m in a n t s fr om ext a n t sou r ces in t o t h e su b su r fa ce en v ir on m en t , a n d eva lu a t in g t h e p ot en t ia l of p r op osed la n d u se a ct iv it ies w h ich ca u se con t a m in a t ion of gr ou n dw a t er. GISs p r ov id e cu r r en t in for m a -t ion for p olicy m a k er s, p la n n er s a n d

m a n a ger s in volved in t h e d ecision -m a k in g r ela t in g t o gr ou n dw a t er q u a lit y (Ca n t er

et a l., 1994).

Also, m u lt i-level p est icid e a ssessm en t m et h od ology h a s d evelop ed for va r ied a ssess-m en t s on t h e p ot en t ia l for p est icid e u sed in a gr icu lt u r a l a r ea s t o con t a m in a t e t h e gr ou n dw a t er r e gim e a t a n exp a n sive geo-gr a p h ica l sca le: p r ov ision is m a d e in a ssess-m en t for t h e lissess-m it a t ion s on ava ila ble a n d a ccu r a t e d a t a , t h e ava ila ble t im e for t h e

a ssessm en t , a n d t h e exp er t ise of t h e d ecision m a k er (Cr ow e a n d Boot y, 1995).

At level 1: r e gion a l sca le is d esign ed t o p r ior it ise a r ea s w it h p ot en t ia lly h igh r isk for gr ou n dw a t er con t a m in a t ion fr om a p a r t icu la r p est icid e a p p lied for a cr op. At level 2: loca l sca le id en t ifi es cr it ica l a r ea s for gr ou n dw a t er con t a m in a t ion , a t a soil p olygon sca le.

At level 3: t h e soil p r ofi le sca le eva lu a t es sp ecifi c fa ct or s a ffect in g p est icid e lea ch in g a n d p er sist en ce, d et er m in es t h e m a gn it u d e a n d t im in g of lea ch in g, t h r ou gh t h e sim u la -t ion of -t h e -t r a n sp or -t a -t ion of a p es-t icid e w it h in a soil p r ofi le. Du e t o t h e sca le of in ves-t iga ves-t ion , lim ives-t ed a m ou n ves-t of d a ves-t a n eed ed , a n d q u a lit a t ive n a t u r e of t h e a ssessm en t r esu lt s, t h e level 1 a n d level 2 a ssessm en t s p r ov id e for fa st a n d exp a n sive gu id a n ce p er t in en t t o m a n a gem en t p r a ct ices. Con ver sely, a level 3 a ssessm en t is m or e com p lex, d em a n d s m or e d a t a a n d exp er t ise, a n d t h u s, is d esign ed for t h e ver ifi ca t ion of t h e p ot en t ia l for con t a m i-n a t ioi-n id ei-n t ifi ed d u r ii-n g t h e level 1 or level 2 a ssessm en t s. T h e sy st em com b in es en v ir on -m en t a l -m od ellin g, GISs, ext en sive d a t a b a ses, d a t a m a n a gem en t sy st em s, exp er t sy st em s, a n d p est icid e a ssessm en t m od els, for a n en v i-r on m en t a l in foi-r m a t ion sy st em t o a ssess t h e p ot en t ia l for p est icid es t o con t a m in a t e gr ou n dw a t er (Cr ow e a n d Boot y, 1995). Mor e-over, in vest iga t ion of fer t iliser a n d p est icid e effect s on gr ou n dw a t er a n d ch em ica l t r a n s-p or t m od ellin g in gr ou n dw a t er m ay b e fea sible.

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m et a l con cen t r a t ion of a n or ga n ic sp ecies a s a n in d ica t or of h eav y m et a l con t en t of soil, a ir or w a t er m ay b e a ffect ed by ecot y p ic va r ia t ion . T h er e m ay b e a n er r or of gen er a l a p p lica t ion of r esu lt s of a loca lised st u dy of in d ica t or s (or m on it or s). Va lid it y of m on it or s n ecessit a t es con t ext u a l a n d sp ecifi c ob ser va -t ion a n d exp er im en -t a -t ion .

ii. Air pollution and climate

Glob a l focu s h a s b een on p ollu t ion p r oblem s, a n d in sever a l cou n t r ies t h e r esp on se h a s b een t o r ect ify t h e p ollu t ion d a m a ge. In st a n ces a b ou n d of m a jor p ollu t ion s w h ich a r e ca u ses of con cer n in volv in g a ir, la n d , a q u ifer s, sea s a n d cit ies. A m a jor a ir p ollu t ion p r oblem , esp ecia lly in u r b a n en v ir on -m en t s, e-m a n a t es fr o-m veh icle e-m ission s. Lea d , h yd r oca r b on s, a n d ot h er t oxic ch em i-ca ls i-ca n b e gen er a t ed by h eav y t r a ffic in sig-n ifi ca sig-n t a m ou sig-n t s t o esig-n d a sig-n ger t h e fl or a a sig-n d fa u n a a lon g m a jor h igh w ay s, w it h su b se-q u en t w a t er p ollu t ion .

T h e p r ot ect ive fu n ct ion of t h e for est ecosy st em for gr ou n dw a t er is m a ssively d a m a ged b eca u se of a cid ify in g a t m osp h er ic p ollu -t a n -t s. In cr ea sin g for es-t d a m a ge (r esu l-t in g in d eser t ifi ca t ion ) a n d a cid ifi ca t ion of soil a n d gr ou n dw a t er d efi n it ely r esu lt in sever e eco-logica l p er t u r b a t ion s in w a t er m a n a gem en t , for b ot h d evelop ed a n d d evelop in g cou n t r ies. It is n ecessa r y t o d et er m in e t h e ext en t r esea r ch h a s ca t e gor ised t h e for est ecosy st em in t o levels of en d a n ger in g soil a n d gr ou n dw a -t er by -t h e p o-t en -t ia l in fi l-t r a -t ion of

a t m osp h er ic p ollu t a n t s, esp ecia lly w it h r esp ect t o a cid for m er s.

A q u a lit a t ive a n d com p a r a t ive eva lu a t ion of t h e sen sit iv it y of gr ou n dw a t er a n d t h e p ot en -t ia l level of in fi l-t r a -t ion w i-t h p ollu -t a n -t s is n ecessa r y in t h is r e ga r d (Bu r d e et a l., 1994). A sign ifi ca n t p r oblem in en v ir on m en t a l p la n -n i-n g is va r iet y of d a t a t h a t m u st b e t a k e-n i-n t o con sid er a t ion b efor e r ea ch in g a d ecision . Com m on ly, d iffer en t d a t a a r e d r aw n in t o va r i-ou s m a p s, a n d la t er m a n u a lly m er ged in t o a u n ifi ed m a p t o ob t a in m or e p er t in en t in for -m a t ion . Develop -m en t of a n exp er t sy st e-m h a s b een u sed t o d er ive d ecision r ela t ed con clu -sion s fr om m u lt ip le a t t r ibu t es of ea ch a r ea of a d igit a l m a p (Bu r d e et a l., 1994). Th e u ser in t er fa ce is d esign ed for t h e n eed s of env ir on -m en t a l p la n n er s, a n d p er -m it s r u les t o b e en t er ed wh ich d efi n e r ela t ion sh ip s b et ween t h e a t t r ibu t es. All r eq u ir ed d a t a is m a n a ged by t h e GIS, t o wh ich t h e exp er t sy st em h a s a n in t er fa ce.

iii. Tourism and coastal management Gover n m en t s n eed t o b e con cer n ed t h a t t ou r ism ea r n in gs w ill n ot b e su st a in ed if t h e in it ia l a t t r a ct ion s a r e d e gr a d ed by in a p p r

o-p r ia t e d eveloo-p m en t s. In cr ea sin g o-p r essu r e for b ot h t h e p r ot ect ion a n d exp a n sion of coa st a l a n d m a r in e r esou r ce u t ilisa t ion d em a n d s effect ive m a n a gem en t of t h ese dy n a m ic en v i-r on m en t s. Un foi-r t u n a t ely, t h e lon g-t ei-r m d a t a n eed ed for ecologica lly -su st a in a ble d ecision s is oft en n ot ava ila ble, su p p or t in g t h e im p or -t a n ce of effec-t ive b a selin e m on i-t or in g p r o-gr a m m es.

Coa st a l ecosy st em s, in clu d in g t h ose w it h n a t u r a l a r ea s, a r e r ecip ien t s of a gr ea t p r o-p or t ion of w a t er fl ow in g off a cou n t r y ’s la n d m a ss. Wa st e loa d s a n d u se of t h e t er r est r ia l su r fa ce in cr ea se in p r op or t ion t o h u m a n p op u la t ion gr ow t h . Ch a n ges in la n d u se cu l-m in a t e in a lt er a t ion s of la n d cover, a n d t h ese a ffect w a t er q u a lit y a n d , su b seq u en t ly, t h e h a b it a t s a n d liv in g r esou r ces of coa st a l a n d est u a r in e a r ea s (T h om a s, 1995). An ecd ot a l in for m a t ion on t h e cu m u la t ive effect s of la n d cover a n d a lt er a t ion s in la n d cover on t h ese h a b it a t s a n d t h e r esou r ces a r e con st r a in t s in t h e p r op er m a n a gem en t of la n d sca p e a ct iv i-t ies. In cer i-t a in p a r i-t s of i-t h e wor ld , h u m a n p op u la t ion in t h e coa st a l a r ea s is in cr ea sin g.

T h e a b ilit y t o m on it or r esu lt a n t ch a n ges in la n d cover a n d h a b it a t ch a n ge m u st b e sim u l-t a n eou s w il-t h l-t h e a ll-t er a l-t ion . Rem ol-t e sen sin g is a n im p or t a n t elem en t in m on it or in g la r ge-sca le ch a n ges in la n d cover in a sy n op t ic, r ela t ively in exp en sive a n d d e p en d a ble w ay. An a ssim ila t ion of su ch in for m a t ion GIS, a n d in t e gr a t ion w it h t r a n sp or t a n d p r ocess-or ien t ed m od els, wou ld a llow t h e p ossib ilit y t o r ela t e la n d cover a n d ch a n ges in la n d cover (i.e. d evelop m en t in t h e coa st a l zon e) t o effect s on liv in g m a r in e r esou r ces; it a lso wou ld a llow p r oa ct ive, a n d n ot m er ely r ea c-t ive, r esp on ses c-t o con c-t in u in g d e gr a d a c-t ion a n d d issip a t ion of coa st a l a n d est u a r in e h a b i-t a i-t s a n d liv in g m a r in e r esou r ces in b oi-t h d evelop ed a n d d evelop in g cou n t r ies.

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ge-Chrys anthus Chukwuma, Sr De ve lo pme nt and

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m en t in fr a st r u ct u r e t h a t is r esp on sive t o t h e dy n a m ic n a t u r e of m od er n d a t a b a ses, w it h p r ov ision for a d ecid ed ly w ell-in for m ed d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess (Rick et t s, 1992).

Cu r r en t a dva n ces m a d e in t h e n u m er ica l m od ellin g of coa st a l r e gion s give la t it u d e for m or e com p let e a n d r ea list ic m a n a gem en t sy st em s for t h ese r e gion s. Su ch sy st em s n eed t o con sid er ch em ica l a n d b iologica l p r ocesses, a s well a s le gisla t ive a n d ot h er socia l con -st r a in t s (Abb ot t et a l., 1991). Th e fi r st p a r t of su ch a m a n a gem en t sy st em con sist s of a ll fa cilit ies for m on it or in g a n d d a t a a cq u isit ion . P la t for m s for t h e m od ellin g sy st em s a r e h yd r ody n a m ic st a ges wh ich p r ov id e su r fa ce eleva t ion s a n d cu r r en t sp eed s over t h e en t ir e m od el a r ea ; w a t er q u a lit y a n d sed im en t t r a n s-p or t u su a lly follow, d e s-p en d in g on t h e sor t of st u dy. In a cou p led a n a ly sis of t h e r esu lt s of t h e m od ellin g a n d field d a t a , a s r e gist er ed in a cen t r a l d a t a b a se, t h e m a n a gem en t sy st em n or m a lly ch eck s t h e st a t u s, for exa m p le, of t h e ecologica l st a t e in t h e a q u a t ic a r ea . In a d d it ion , it r e gu la r ly ch eck s t h e p r ed ict ion s of t h e va r iou s com p u t a t ion a l m od u les a ga in st t h e r ea l fi eld m ea su r em en t s. T h is ch eck ed m od ellin g sy st em p r ed ict s t h e effect s of cu r -r en t op e-r a t ion s a n d m a n a gem en t p -r a ct ices, a n d m on it or s t h e en v ir on m en t a l im p a ct s of p la n n ed a n t h r op ogen ic a ct iv it ies on t h e fu t u r e st a t e of t h e p a r t icu la r a q u a t ic en v ir on -m en t (Abb ot t et a l., 1991).

Principles of donor-related assistance in water resources development

Wa t er d evelop m en t co-op er a t ion is b a sed on t h e p r in cip le t h a t t h e d on or cou n t r y a llow s t h e r ecip ien t cou n t r y t o t a k e r esp on sib ilit y for it s ow n d evelop m en t a n d t h e su b seq u en t im p lem en t a t ion of t h e p r oject s. T h e r ole of t h e d on or cou n t r y, in b ot h t h eor y a n d p r a c-t ice, is c-t o su p p or c-t c-t h e im p lem en c-t a c-t ion a n d bu ild a n d st r en gt h en t h e n ecessa r y ca p a b ili-t ies in ili-t h e r ecip ien ili-t cou n ili-t r y ili-t o fu n cili-t ion in a su st a in a ble m a n n er. H ow ever, p a r t icip a t ion in t h e p r oject s n ecessit a t es a d eq u a t e k n ow l-ed ge of t h e p olit ica l, cu lt u r a l, socia l, econ om ic a n d a d m in ist r a t ive con d it ion s of t h e r ecip ien t cou n t r y a n d exp er ien ce in com p a r a ble p r oject s. T h ese m ay a ssist a ll in st it u -t ion s con cer n ed -t o efficien -t ly a n d effec-t ively ca r r y ou t en v ir on m en t a l m on it or in g a n d in for m a t ion sy st em m a n a gem en t in t h e r ecip ien t cou n t r y. It h a s a lso b een su ggest ed t h a t ext er n a l in p u t s a n d in t er ven t ion s cou ld b e of b en efi t or loss in d evelop in g coop er a -t ion , if in d igen ou s fa c-t or s a r e n o-t a d eq u a -t ely t a k en in t o con sid er a t ion (Ra h eem , 1997).

Don or cou n t r ies m ay m a k e p r ov ision for : • im p lem en t in g a t r a in in g-of-t r a in er s p r o-gr a m m e for en v ir on m en t a l m on it or in g a n d in for m a t ion sy st em m a n a gem en t ;

• p r e p a r in g gu id elin es a n d m a n u a ls; • wor k sh op s a n d sem in a r s;

• r a p id p olit ica l, socia l, econ om ic a n d a d m in ist r a t ive ch a n ges in d evelop in g cou n t r ies; a n d

• m or e fl exible p olicy in t h e ch oice of d evelop m en t co-op er a t ion p a r t n er s. T h e over a ll ob ject ive of t h e w a t er d evelop -m en t p r oject -m u st , in ter a lia ,b e t o in cr ea se t h e ava ila b ilit y of sa fe w a t er, m on it or in g a n d eva lu a t ion , in st it u t ion a l bu ild in g a n d st r en gt h en in g, id en t ifi ca t ion a n d er a d ica t ion of logist ic con st r a in t s, a n d w a t er r esou r ce m a n a gem en t . In b ot h d evelop ed a n d d evelop -in g cou n t r ies, w a t er is r eleva n t -in a gr icu l-t u r a l p r od u cl-t ion , r u r a l sa n il-t a l-t ion a n d h ou seh old cseh or es. T seh e p r oblem fa cin g m ost d evelop -in g com m u n it ies is t h e p r ov ision of a d eq u a t e w a t er su p p ly for t h e in h a b it a n t s. T h e m a in ob st a cles t o t h e a t t a in m en t of a d eq u a t e w a t er su p p lies a r e low levels of t ech n ology a n d lim it ed fi n a n cia l r esou r ces. T h ese con st r a in t s ca n b e over com e by t h e n ecessa r y p olit ica l w ill, good lea d er sh ip, com m it m en t a n d d ed i-ca t ion of a ll con cer n ed (Da ily T im es, 1997).

T h er efor e, for en v ir on m en t a l m on it or in g a n d in for m a t ion sy st em s w it h in a n d b et w een n eigh b ou r in g cou n t r ies, com p a r a t ive d a t a on ext a n t w a t er r esou r ces m u st in clu d e: • t h e sou r ce of a cou n t r y ’s w a t er

r eq u ir em en t s;

• t h e ext en t t o w h ich u n t r ea t ed u r b a n a n d in d u st r ia l efflu en t is r esu lt in g in h ea lt h d er a n gem en t of t h e p op u la t ion d e p en d en t on it ;

• t h e ext en t t o w h ich w a t er p ollu t ion is con t a m in a t in g d r in k in g w a t er sou r ces, p r om ot -in g p a t h ogen ic b a ct er ia a n d p a r a sit e gr ow t h , a s w ell a s con t a m in a t in g sever a l food a n d fi sh ; a n d

• t h e ext en t p r od u ct iv it y of a gr icu lt u r a l la n d is a ffect ed by sa lin isa t ion a n d w a t er loggin g.

Discussion and conclusion

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p r esen t a t ion of a “fr a m ewor k ” for d esign m ea n s t h a t su ch sy st em s ca n sp ecify ever y a t t r ibu t e a b solu t ely. It is n ecessa r y t o h ave a sy st em a t ic a p p r oa ch t o m on it or in g sy st em d esign a n d st ill m a in t a in fl exib ilit y in d esign a n d im p lem en t a t ion .

Wa t er q u a lit y m on it or in g is u n a ble t o d ea l w it h a ll in for m a t ion n eed s u sin g on ly on e d a t a collect ion p r oced u r e. T h e goa ls a n d p r oced u r es for d esign in g w a t er q u a lit y m on it or in g p r ogr a m m es n eed it o focu s on exp a n -sive in for m a t ion n eed s, su ch a s t h e a ssess-m en t a b ilit y of t r en d s a n d en v ir on ssess-m en t a l effect s, d et er m in a t ion of com p lia n ce w it h ob ject ives a n d st a n d a r d s, est im a t ion of m a ss t r a n sp or t , a n d p er for m a n ce of gen er a l su r -veilla n ce (Wh it fi eld , 1988). E a ch of t h ese in for m a t ion n eed s h a s va r ied d a t a r eq u ir em en t s. A p er t in en t st r a t e gy for t h e d evelop -m en t of a sa -m p lin g p r oced u r e a t a -m on it or in g sit e m ay b e a s follow s:

1 est a blish m en t of m on it or in g goa l; 2 select ion of a p p r op r ia t e sa m p lin g p la n ; 3 p er iod ic r ev iew of d a t a for t h e eva lu a t ion

of a d eq u a cy of t h e sa m p lin g p la n ; a n d 4 r ev ision of sa m p lin g a s fea sible (Wh it fi eld ,

1988).

T h e d esign er or op er a t or of a n en v ir on m en t a l q u a lit y m on it or in g sy st em p ossesses a gr ea t a m ou n t of in for m a t ion on sp ecifi c a sp ect s of m on it or in g, bu t t h e d ir ect lin k of a ll t h e ext a n t d esign a n d op er a t ion a l in for m a t ion is n ot clea r. It is st ill n ot clea r h ow m on it or in g t a sk s a r e t o b e con n ect ed so t h a t t h e en d p r od -u ct m eet s t h e in for m a t ion n eed s of m a n a ge-m en t . In t h e p r esen t a t ion of d esign

a p p r oa ch es, d esign er s or op er a t or s ea sily b ecom e en m esh ed in st a t ist ica l d et a ils, w it h -ou t exp en d in g su fficien t t im e on t h e m or e d ifficu lt t a sk of exp la in in g t h e in for m a t ion con t ext of st a t ist ica l a p p lica t ion s (Wa r d et a l., 1990). T h e fr ee fl ow a n d t r a n sfer of cu r r en t scien t ifi c in for m a t ion , exp er t ise a n d exp er i-en ce m u st b e su p p or t ed , a ssist ed , i-en cou r a ged a n d r ecogn ised t o fa cilit a t e solv in g of en v i-r on m en t a l p i-r oblem s.

E n v ir on m en t a l a n d d evelop m en t a l t ech n ologies m u st b e m a d e ava ila ble t o d evelop -in g cou n t r ies on favou r a ble a n d con d u cive t er m s, t o en cou r a ge t h eir ext en sive d is-sem in a t ion , w it h ou t con st it u t in g a n u n d u e econ om ic bu r d en t o d evelop in g n a t ion s (Ch u k w u m a , 1996). Re gu la t or y a n d le gisla t ive r eq u ir em en t s for r ecor d k ee p in g a n d r e p or t in g, a s w ell a s t h e p en a lt ies for n on

-com p lia n ce m u st b e st r ict ly en for ced in d evel-op in g cou n t r ies. For t h is t o b e effect ive, p er t in ein t iin d u st r ies, or ga in iza t ioin s a in d gover in -m en t s -m u st co-m p u t er ise en v ir on -m en t a l d a t a . T h e n eed exist s for t h e d evelop m en t of a n en com p a ssin g st r a t e gic en v ir on m en t a l p la n

t h a t in clu d es a p la n for t h e m a n a gem en t of en v ir on m en t a l in for m a t ion , su ch a s sh a r in g com m on d a t a , a ccess t o en v ir on m en t a l in for -m a t ion , a b ilit y for va r iou s in for -m a t ion sy st em s t o exch a n ge d a t a , a n d a p r oced u r e for a u d it in g t h e m a n a gem en t of en v ir on m en t a l in for m a t ion (Wa lt h er, 1992).

To st em fu r t h er d et er ior a t ion of t h e en v ir on m en t a n d n a t u r a l en d ow m en t s a n d t o est a blish a n a cce p t a ble st a t e of w a t er

r esou r ces for t h e fu t u r e, sever a l d evelop -m en t s a n d ch a n ges n eed t o b e -m a d e in ea ch cou n t r y ’s in for m a t ion a n d m on it or in g, eco-n om ic, le ga l a eco-n d ed u ca t ioeco-n a l sy st em s. Ach ievem en t of su ccess in p r ot ect in g a cou n -t r y ’s w a -t er r esou r ces d e p en d s on es-t a blish in g su st a in a ble r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een cou n t r ies a n d t h eir r esp ect ive n eigh b ou r s t o a n ext en t n ever p r ev iou sly exp er ien ced .

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