Students attitudes towards spoken English competence test (TKBI) at university level.

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ABSTRACT

Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas (2015). Students’ Attitudes towards Spoken English Competence Test (TKBI) at University Level. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

As an effort to improve the quality of the graduates, Sanata Dharma University has implemented Spoken English Competence Test (TKBI) since 2008. All students from non-English departments are required to take TKBI test before their undergraduate thesis defense. They are allowed to take the test since semester five and required to achieve C1 level of CEFR to succeed. The test is to ensure that all graduates of Sanata Dharma University have ability to communicate actively in English. Considering the nature of the test, TKBI test

seems to bring high consequence to the students’ lives. The test is considered to bring significant impacts that contribute to build their performance, success, and failure. As high stake test, it affects what students think, feel, and act during the test preparation and test taking which considerably shape their' attitudes towards the language, language learning, and most importantly, the test itself. The study aims to identify students’ attitudes towards TKBI test which is implemented in the university as one of the graduation requirements.

In order to identify students' attitudes towards the language, language learning, and the test, survey research was conducted. As data gathering instruments, a set of questionnaires was distributed to 130 students from five departments and ten students were interviewed for triangulation. The Spearman’s rho computation was used as the statistical analysis to identify the correlation between the components of attitudes. The research was conducted in five departments in the university; Mathematic Department, Elementary Teacher Education Department, Indonesian Letters Department, Psychology Department, and Accounting Department.

The data suggests that the test had considerable impacts on students' attitudes. The Likert score of > 2.8 from scale of 4.0 implies that most students had positive attitudes towards the test. In general, the students were confident that they could pass the test. Many students perceived themselves to have low competence, so they would possibly fail on the test. Nevertheless, the students were not really satisfied with their current language competence, so they were eager to strive for improvement. Since they often made grammatical mistakes, mispronounced words, limited vocabularies, and frequent pauses during their speech, they were motivated to improve their competence through every learning activity inside or outside classroom, with others or individually. Besides affecting

students’ thought or judgement on their language competence and their learning strategies, the implementation of the test also affects students’ feelings. The data analysis implies that most students could control their anxiety that it would not affect their performance.

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ABSTRAK

Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas. (2015). Students’ Attitudes towards Spoken English Competence Test (TKBI) at University Level. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

Sebagai upaya untuk menaikkan mutu lulusan, Universitas Sanata Dharma telah melaksanakan Tes Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris (TKBI) sejak tahun 2008.Seluruh mahasiswa dari program non-bahasa Inggris diwajibkan untuk mengikuti tes TKBI sebelum pendadaran. Mereka diperbolehkan mengikuti tes sejak semester 5 dan diwajibkan mencapai standar C1 dari CEFR sebagai batas kelulusan minimal. Tes ini bertujuan untuk menjamin bahwa seluruh lulusan Universitas Sanata Dharma memiliki kemampuan berbahasa Inggris aktif. Dilihat dari hakikat tes, tes TKBI seolah membawa konsekuensi yang tinggi terhadap pribadi mahasiswa. Tes dipercaya membawa dampak terhadap kemampuan mahasiswa, kesuksesan, dan kegagalan mereka. Menimbang konsekuensinya yang tinggi, tes tersebut mempengaruhi apa yang dipikirkan, dirasakan, dan dilakukan mahasiswa selama persiapan tes dan mengikuti tes yang cukup berperan dalam membentuk sikap mahasiswa terhadap bahasa, pelajaran bahasa, dan yang paling penting, tes. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi sikap siswa terhadap tes TKBI yang dilaksanakan di universitas sebagai salah satu syarat kelulusan.

Untuk mengidentifikasi sikap siswa terhadap bahasa, pelajaran bahasa, dan tes, dilakukan survei. Untuk mengumpulkan data, kuesioner diberikan kepada 130 mahasiswa dari lima program studi dan sepuluh siswa diinterview untuk triangulasi. Penghitungan Spearman’s rho digunakan sebagai analisa statistik untuk melihat korelasi antar komponen sikap. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di lima program studi di universitas seperti Program Studi Pendidikan Matematika, Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar, Sastra Indonesia, Psikologi, dan Akuntansi.

Data menunjukkan bahwa tes memiliki dampak yang cukup besar terhadap sikap siswa. Skor >2.8 dari skala Likert 4.0 mengartikan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa memiliki sikap positif terhadap tes. Secara garis besar, mahasiswa yakin bahwa mereka dapat lolos tes. Banyak mahasiswa menganggap dirinya memiliki kompetensi yang rendah, sehingga kemungkinan gagal dalam tes. Meskipun demikian, mahasiswa tidak terlalu puas dengan kompetensi bahasa mereka, sehingga berusaha untuk meningkatkannya. Karena mereka masih sering menemukan kesalahan tata bahasa, pelafalan, kosakata yang terbatas, dan ketidaklancaran dalam berbicara, mereka termotivasi untuk meningkatkan kompetensi mereka melalui kegiatan belajar didalam maupun diluar kelas, dalam grup atau sendiri. Selain mempengaruhi penilaian mereka terhadap kompetensi dan strategi belajar, pelaksanaan tes juga mempengaruhi perasaan mahasiswa. Data menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa dapat mengontrol rasa cemas mereka agar tidak mempengaruhi performa.

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COMPETENCE TEST (TKBI) AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum)

in English Language Studies

by

Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas Student Number: 136332008

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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i

STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS SPOKEN ENGLISH COMPETENCE TEST (TKBI) AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum)

in English Language Studies

by

Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas Student Number: 136332008

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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ii A THESIS

by

Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas Student Number: 136332008

Approved by

F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.

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iii A THESIS

STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS SPOKEN ENGLISH COMPETENCE TEST (TKBI) AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL

Presented by

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iv

STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else‟s ideas, phrases, sentences, or sentences without proper references.

Yogyakarta, July 28, 2015

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v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama: Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas NIM: 136332008

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 28 Juli 2015

Yang menyatakan

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vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Only because of the grace and abundant blessings of God, I was able to complete this thesis. I was grateful to have many people who always supported me and stood beside me during the process of writing this thesis. Thus, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all of these great people.

I would like to express my gratitude to the Graduate Program of Sanata Dharma University and English Language Studies for giving me a grant, so that I could continue my study and develop myself through the great learning experiences. My special gratitude goes to my thesis advisor, F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. for his patience, support, guidance and help that I was able to finish this thesis in time. I would also like to thank all lecturers in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University; Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., and Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A.(Hons), Ph.D. for giving me such great opportunities to gain meaningful experiences and knowledge, as well as to develop myself in this study program. I am also grateful for all the staffs in this graduate program for their support, Pak Mul and mbak Lely who always helped me during my study. My gratitude also goes to the chairpersons of the departments in the university for their support and permission that I was able to conduct the research.

I express my deepest gratitude to my mother, Yuliana Sri Rohani for being a great motivator when I am down, for her love, support, and care, and my father, Paulus Pujiarto, who has rest in peace, for being a never-ending inspiration, and for all of my family. I thank you for your prayers for me every day that make me stronger. Without you all, I might lose my strength and hope.

I am also thankful for the prayers and meaningful support from my great family in Language Institute of Sanata Dharma; the director, the coordinators, the staffs, and the instructors. I thank mbak Lucy for the advices and help during the research. I am very grateful to have great thesis-working comrades; mas Simon,

mas Daniel, mas Ichaq, dek Rio, mbak Bre, mbak Rieta, mbak Novi, and mbak

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vii

For mbak Eli and mbak Bre, I would like to thank you for your support and help, as well as our friendship that will never end.

And for all of my great friends in ELS, I thank you for the great times we always had and for sharing your knowledge and laughter. It was really a great time when we could learn and improve ourselves together. May God grant you happiness, success, and shower of blessing. At last, I would like to thank all people whose names cannot be mentioned. Their support is also meaningful for me. May all of them be blessed with love and happiness.

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viii

LIST OF TABLES

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xi

LIST OF FIGURES

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xii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE BLUEPRINT……… 155

APPENDIX 2: RAW QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS.………. 158

APPENDIX 3: TRANSCRIPTS OF INTERVIEW RESULTS………. 161

APPENDIX 4: SAMPLES OF QUESTIONNAIRE..……… 178

APPENDIX 5: ASSESSMENT RUBRIC……….. 192

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xiii ABSTRACT

Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas (2015). Students’ Attitudes towards Spoken English Competence Test (TKBI) at University Level. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

As an effort to improve the quality of the graduates, Sanata Dharma University has implemented Spoken English Competence Test (TKBI) since 2008. All students from non-English departments are required to take TKBI test before their undergraduate thesis defense. They are allowed to take the test since semester five and required to achieve C1 level of CEFR to succeed. The test is to ensure that all graduates of Sanata Dharma University have ability to communicate actively in English. Considering the nature of the test, TKBI test seems to bring high consequence to the students‟ lives. The test is considered to bring significant impacts that contribute to build their performance, success, and failure. As high stake test, it affects what students think, feel, and act during the test preparation and test taking which considerably shape their' attitudes towards the language, language learning, and most importantly, the test itself. The study aims to identify students‟ attitudes towards TKBI test which is implemented in the university as one of the graduation requirements.

In order to identify students' attitudes towards the language, language learning, and the test, survey research was conducted. As data gathering instruments, a set of questionnaires was distributed to 130 students from five departments and ten students were interviewed for triangulation. The Spearman‟s rho computation was used as the statistical analysis to identify the correlation between the components of attitudes. The research was conducted in five departments in the university; Mathematic Department, Elementary Teacher Education Department, Indonesian Letters Department, Psychology Department, and Accounting Department.

The data suggests that the test had considerable impacts on students' attitudes. The Likert score of > 2.8 from scale of 4.0 implies that most students had positive attitudes towards the test. In general, the students were confident that they could pass the test. Many students perceived themselves to have low competence, so they would possibly fail on the test. Nevertheless, the students were not really satisfied with their current language competence, so they were eager to strive for improvement. Since they often made grammatical mistakes, mispronounced words, limited vocabularies, and frequent pauses during their speech, they were motivated to improve their competence through every learning activity inside or outside classroom, with others or individually. Besides affecting students‟ thought or judgement on their language competence and their learning strategies, the implementation of the test also affects students‟ feelings. The data analysis implies that most students could control their anxiety that it would not affect their performance.

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xiv

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xv ABSTRAK

Agnes Siwi Purwaning Tyas. (2015). Students’ Attitudes towards Spoken English Competence Test (TKBI) at University Level. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

Sebagai upaya untuk menaikkan mutu lulusan, Universitas Sanata Dharma telah melaksanakan Tes Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris (TKBI) sejak tahun 2008.Seluruh mahasiswa dari program non-bahasa Inggris diwajibkan untuk mengikuti tes TKBI sebelum pendadaran. Mereka diperbolehkan mengikuti tes sejak semester 5 dan diwajibkan mencapai standar C1 dari CEFR sebagai batas kelulusan minimal. Tes ini bertujuan untuk menjamin bahwa seluruh lulusan Universitas Sanata Dharma memiliki kemampuan berbahasa Inggris aktif. Dilihat dari hakikat tes, tes TKBI seolah membawa konsekuensi yang tinggi terhadap pribadi mahasiswa. Tes dipercaya membawa dampak terhadap kemampuan mahasiswa, kesuksesan, dan kegagalan mereka. Menimbang konsekuensinya yang tinggi, tes tersebut mempengaruhi apa yang dipikirkan, dirasakan, dan dilakukan mahasiswa selama persiapan tes dan mengikuti tes yang cukup berperan dalam membentuk sikap mahasiswa terhadap bahasa, pelajaran bahasa, dan yang paling penting, tes. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi sikap siswa terhadap tes TKBI yang dilaksanakan di universitas sebagai salah satu syarat kelulusan.

Untuk mengidentifikasi sikap siswa terhadap bahasa, pelajaran bahasa, dan tes, dilakukan survei. Untuk mengumpulkan data, kuesioner diberikan kepada 130 mahasiswa dari lima program studi dan sepuluh siswa diinterview untuk triangulasi. Penghitungan Spearman‟s rho digunakan sebagai analisa statistik untuk melihat korelasi antar komponen sikap. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di lima program studi di universitas seperti Program Studi Pendidikan Matematika, Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar, Sastra Indonesia, Psikologi, dan Akuntansi.

Data menunjukkan bahwa tes memiliki dampak yang cukup besar terhadap sikap siswa. Skor >2.8 dari skala Likert 4.0 mengartikan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa memiliki sikap positif terhadap tes. Secara garis besar, mahasiswa yakin bahwa mereka dapat lolos tes. Banyak mahasiswa menganggap dirinya memiliki kompetensi yang rendah, sehingga kemungkinan gagal dalam tes. Meskipun demikian, mahasiswa tidak terlalu puas dengan kompetensi bahasa mereka, sehingga berusaha untuk meningkatkannya. Karena mereka masih sering menemukan kesalahan tata bahasa, pelafalan, kosakata yang terbatas, dan ketidaklancaran dalam berbicara, mereka termotivasi untuk meningkatkan kompetensi mereka melalui kegiatan belajar didalam maupun diluar kelas, dalam grup atau sendiri. Selain mempengaruhi penilaian mereka terhadap kompetensi dan strategi belajar, pelaksanaan tes juga mempengaruhi perasaan mahasiswa. Data menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa dapat mengontrol rasa cemas mereka agar tidak mempengaruhi performa.

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xvi

mahasiswa juga berkaitan dengan pikiran dan perasaan mereka, yang disebut pula dengan sikap kognitif dan afektif. Apa yang mereka pikirkan tentang kompetensi mereka dan apa yang mereka rasakan akan menentukan usaha mereka dalam belajar. Cukup penting untuk dipertimbangkan, bahwa tes juga mempengaruhi tujuan belajar, motivasi, dan persepsi mereka terhadap tes. Mempertimbangkan situasi tersebut, riset ini menyarankan dosen dan pemangku kepentingan untuk mengidentifikasi sikap siswa dan mengantisipasi efek tes terhadap sikap mereka. Kata kunci: sikap, kompetensi berbahasa Inggris, berbicara, tes berbicara bahasa

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1

INTRODUCTION

This section describes the background of the study, the nature of the problem, the research question, problem limitation, research objectives, and research benefits.

A. BACKGROUND

Test Kemampuan Berbahasa Inggris (TKBI) or known as The Spoken English Competence Test is a test designed and conducted by Sanata Dharma University to measure the students‟ communicative competence. It has been

administered since 2008. The goal of the test is derived from the goal of the university, which is to create qualified students who can maintain international communication for academic and professional lives. Being able to communicate in English is considered as one of the essential skills that the students should master to ensure their success for their academic and professional purposes.

The TKBI test itself is conducted in the form of interview. All students from non-English department should take the test before they graduate. They can take the test starting from their fifth semester and register themselves in the TKBI secretariat. In the test, the students are interviewed by the assigned lecturers from English Letters Department and English Education Study Program. The students‟

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judicium, depending on the policy of the departments. Each department may have different policy to determine the passing grade, but mostly B-.

Talking about the effect of test on the students is not something new in education. However, this phenomenon is often absent in the evaluation process of the test. The implementation of TKBI in the university brings considerable impacts on the students‟ attitudes towards the test. Some students can be

motivated to prepare for the test, while the others can be stressful. This condition is called washback or backwash. These terms can be used interchangebly because they refer to the same meaning. Washback or backwash effect is defined as the impact that tests have on teaching and learning (Shohamy, as cited in Bailey, 2009). The theory explains how test can affect students‟ preparation and performance. A study by Cheng related to the effects of test on students attitudes illustrates that test can result in "unintended and accidental side-effects" (as cited in Bailey, 2009). Test can bring positive effects on the students, such as motivation, confidence, and future orientation. On the other hand, test can lead to negative responses, including anxiety and improper learning. The students‟ favorable and unfavorable responses on the test can be called as attitudes (Ajzan, 1988, p. 6). Other relevant studies show how the test takers feel that preparing and taking the test can influence their emotions, behaviors, and cognitive processes.

In addition to language ability, students‟ performance in test is also

affected by students‟ attitudes towards language and language learning (Feast &

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motivated, they will prepare themselves better compared to those who are very anxious about the test. Bachman and Palmer mention some factors that affect the test-takers‟ performance, including their experiences in the process of preparing for the test and taking the test, the feedback they receive about their performance on the test, the result of the test, the decisions they make related to the test, and their perceptions on the test (1996, p. 32). These factors will considerably determine students‟ success.

Considering the potential effects that a test can bring to the students, the test should be evaluated in terms of the impacts to the students. The test should be evaluated from its impacts on students‟ goals and values, the educational system,

the potential outcomes, and influence of tests on the process. One way to evaluate the test is by gathering information from the students. Bachman and Palmer suggest that students should be included in all phases of test development because they can share as much information about their opinions, perceptions, and attitudes for better outcomes (1996, p. 19). By involving the test takers in the design and development processes, the stakeholders can promote the positive impacts because the test takers will perceive the test itself as more interactive, meaningful and authentic, and will be more motivated, which could lead to enhanced preparation and better performance (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, p. 133).

B. PROBLEM LIMITATION

The research deals with the students‟ attitudes towards TKBI test. Students‟

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the study is conducted during the students‟ preparation to take TKBI test.

Furthermore, attitudes on the test are observable during the test preparation. The researcher can identify whether the students have positive or negative attitudes towards the test during the learning process. These attitudes will affect students‟ performance on the test. This research will limit the study on the attitudes during the test preparation. However, some students who have taken the test will be interviewed for further reference to support the data analysis.

Although the participants come from various departments in Sanata Dharma University, this research does not identify students‟ attitudes based on the

departments. Since the research is survey research, the result of data analysis cannot describe causal and effect relationship. This research does not aim to identify the effects of attitudes on performance. Moreover, the test results are also confidential, so that the data related to the scores or students‟ language

proficiency is limited. Instead of examining the effects of attitudes on test performance, this survey research focuses on describing the attitudes of the students which are found during the test preparation and explaining the relationship between the components.

C. PROBLEM FORMULATION

The study aims to answer questions related to the students‟ attitudes

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D. RESEARCH GOALS

According to Visser (2008), attitudes affect language performance. Based on the observation as well as the information from the examiners, TKBI coordinator, and the students as the test takers, the number of students failing on the test is considerably high, more than 50% of the test takers in each period. The same condition is also experienced by students who always perform well on the class. Reflecting from the situation, they perceive other factors that influence students‟ performance other than language performance and skills. According to Bandura (1993), ability is not a fixed attribute of behavior. It is a generative capability which involves several important factors such as cognitive, behavioral, affective, social, and motivational factors. These factors are summarized into one concept noted as students‟ attitudes (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Attitudes towards test can refer to what students think, feel, and do about certain test. These attitudes can enhance or impair quality of action or performance. Therefore, the research aims to identify students‟ attitudes towards TKBI test. This will be the first study which is conducted around the area of students‟ attitudes towards the

test during its six years of implementation by the university.

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cognitive components of attitudes because it is considered as self-appraisal forms on cognitive process when students think about their academic capabilities (Bandura, 1993). This makes self-efficacy becomes better predictor of performance than actual ability. This research also deals with students‟ affective attitudes or their feelings during the test preparation and test taking which include anxiety, motivation, and success expectancy. In addition, the research will identify students‟ actions or learning strategies to prepare for the test which are

responsible to build students‟ learning motivation. The data will be useful to describe students‟ attitudes which bring potential effects on their performance.

Since identifying students‟ attitudes also includes identifying students‟ learning goals and perceptions on the test, the research will gather information about students‟ learning goals and motives that direct them during the learning

process. Then, statistical technique will be used to analyze the relation between the components of attitudes. Hence, the teachers and the students can anticipate the negative effects of attitudes on learning process and learning performance. As a result, they can improve and optimize their preparation process to achieve better outcomes.

Students‟ perceptions towards the test are also identified to find out their

opinions about the implementation of the test. Li, Zhong, and Suen (2012) mention that test can influence students‟ perceptions because it affects the way the

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research will gather information about students‟ opinions or how the test is perceived, whether the test is effective, relevant, purposeful, beneficial, and meaningful for the students or not. Perceptions are highly related to learning performance because they drive learning motivation and determine how the students learn (Struyven, Dochy, & Janssens, 2005). Therefore, positive perceptions can enhance learning, while negative perceptions can deteriorate learning. In addition to perceptions, the students are also expected to evaluate their preparation and their performance on the test. The data obtained from the participants will be used to give references for better policy making. Therefore, the research can contribute to improve the implementation of the test and students‟

performance.

E. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY

The research is expected to give benefits for some people. These people are as follow:

1. The non-English-department students of Sanata Dharma University

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2. The English lecturers of Sanata Dharma University

The English lecturers of Sanata Dharma University can benefit from the research in terms of improving their teaching strategies to help the students improve their proficiency. The result of the research will give information about students‟ attitudes during the learning process. Hence, the teacher can minimize

the bad effects of the test and optimize the learning process. This research also manages to invite the lecturers to motivate their students and help them build their self-efficacy which is important for their performance.

3. Sanata Dharma University

For Sanata Dharma University, as the stakeholders of the test who run the policy and administer the test, this research is expected to provide references about the effects of the TKBI on the students and the learning process. The information from the students can also be used for policy making of TKBI test, so that it can maximize the benefits for the students.

4. The future researcher

For future researcher, this research can be a guideline to conduct further research related to students‟ attitudes and proficiency test. This research is

expected to provide references for further research to improve the implementation of TKBI test. Study on the students‟ attitudes itself can be completed with the

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9 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher presents the theoretical review and theoretical framework of this research. The researcher also describes some relevant theories used to build the constructs of the study.

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

This section will describe the concepts of attitudes, language proficiency, and Spoken English Proficiency Test (TKBI). The concepts are used as the constructs that underlie the study.

1. Attitudes

a. The definition of attitudes

The term attitudes in language learning are defined as "the sumtotal of a man's instinctions and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, fears, threats, and convictions about any specified topic" (Gardner, 1980, p.267). Ajzen also defines attitudes as “a disposition to respond favourably or unfavourably to

an object, person, institution,or event” (1988, p.4). The two definitions of attitudes

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Attitudes Cognitive

(thought)

Affective

(feeling)

Behavior

(action)

Another concept of attitudes is described by Baker who defines attitudes as “a hypothetical construct used to explain the direction and persistence of

human behaviour” (1992, p.10). Similar theory explains the attitudesas the individual‟s beliefs about outcomes or attributes of performing the behavior

(behavioral beliefs), weighted by evaluations of those outcomes or attributes (Montano & Kasprzyk, 2008, p. 71). This concept of attitudes shows that students‟ attitudes arevisible and reflected in their behaviors towards language and language learning. Therefore, they can be observed in their learning strategies.

b. The components of attitudes

The definitions of attitudes above show that individual‟s attitudes are built of thought, feeling, and action. Related to test-taking and test preparation process, students‟ attitudes are expressed through what they think, feel, and act towards the

[image:31.595.101.518.276.684.2]

object or the test itself (Wicker, 1969). It becomes clear that students‟ attitudes towards language learning and language test are built up by three interrelated components called cognitive, affective, and behavioral attitudes (Ajzen, 1975, pp. 4-6).

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Cognitive components of attitudes consist of the beliefs and ideas or opinions about the language and language learning. They are manifested in the forms of students‟ thoughts, knowledge, or ideas on certain object. The cognitive attitudes can be classified into four steps of connecting the previous knowledge and the new one, creating new knowledge, checking new knowledge, and applying the new knowledge during the learning process.

The affective components of attitudesrefer to the feeling and emotions that one has towards an object. In this study, it can be described as the students‟ feelings of „likes' or 'dislikes' and 'with' or 'against' the test. What the students feel

about the test influences the way they perceive the test. When the students have positive feelings towards language and language learning, it will result in positive attitude during the learning process. The same condition occurs in the test-taking process when students‟ positive feeling towards the test affects their test

performance. The affective components of attitudesare sometimes not visible. Therefore, the teachers need to ask their students to know their feelings or emotions during the test preparation or the test-taking process.

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c. Students‟ attitudes towards test

Baker mentions that students‟ attitudes towards language and language

learning can be identified from their reason to learn a language, use of language, and engagement in the process of learning language (2009, p. 23). Their learning motive can determine their attitudes towards language test, and the attitudes on test are reflected in the form of goal setting. In terms of learning goals, the students can have different learning goals during the learning process. Some students think that they need to learn the target language because they will use the language. The other students may think that learning the language is necessary to pass the test.

Students‟ attitudes towards a learning behavior or action contains

instrumental as well as experiential aspects which determine whether they have the desire to learn or not, whether their action is valuable or worthless to take, whether their learning experience is pleasant or unpleasant, and whether the learning process is interesting or boring (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975, p. 199). Those aspects will affect students‟ effort to learn. Students who have positive behavioral attitudes show good learning effort which will lead to better performance.

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surface learning learn by completing a task, engaging in a learning activity, and solving problem. A deep learning approach is characterized by students effort to understand the material, activate conceptual analysis, gain deep level of understanding, and expand their knowledge and skill. Students‟ additional

approach to language learning is a combination between two approaches which is characterized by students‟ learning effort to achieve highest grade through

well-organized study and effective time management.

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In addition to learning behavior, cognitive attitudes form students‟ self -efficacy. Self-efficacy involves judgement of capabilities to perform action, knowledge, skills, and learning strategies(Zimmerman, 1995 in Bandura 2007, p. 213). It brings the consequences on students‟ performance. During test preparation, self-efficacy relates to learning motivation, strategies, interest.

Figure 2.2 Self-Efficacy and Learning (Zimmerman in Bandura 2007, p. 205)

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They are more motivated to accomplish every task which is useful to improve their competence and skill. These students also perform better learning strategies to help them learn better. During the learning process, they also shows learning persistence because they manage to accomplish all tasks successfully. As a result, they also show persistent learning performance as well.

In addition to learning for test preparation, the implementation of test can build students‟ cogntive attitudes in terms of their self-efficacy or confidence in

handling the test. Students‟ self-efficacy on test can be described as students‟ confidence, self-esteem, and belief about their abilities to accomplish a task or test (Chamot, et al., 1999, p. 62). Identifying students‟ self-efficacy is necessary because it affects students‟ performance on test. Students with low self-efficacy think that they have poor abilities that they cannot pass the test, so they do less learning effort because they believe that they have lack of ability. Therefore, low self-efficacy can impair their performance. On the other hand, the students with low self-efficacy level can be motivated to learn because they think that they need to and they can improve their competence (Bandura, 1993, p. 128). Therefore, their motivation and self-efficacy can influence their learning strategies and efforts to tackle a test (Chamot et al, 1999, p. 62). The negative or positive effect of this self-efficacy can be seen in the test result.

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students‟ perception and belief about their ability. Bad scores on test makethe

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students think that they have lack of ability that can hinder them from success. Their social interaction also shapes their confidence on their language ability. When their friends think that the test is difficult, it will affect their confidence in taking the test. Students who have self-regulatory self-efficacy shape their own belief about their competence, whether they have enough or lack of competence.

Figure 2.3 Model of Self-Efficacy and Learning Achievement (Carroll, Houghton, Wood, Unsworth, Hattie, Gordon, &

Bower,2012, p.5)

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quality of thinking and action (Bandura, 1993, p. 133). Self-efficacy can affect students‟ level of anxiety. The result of their past academic success or failure

affect students‟ level of anxiety. If it weakens their self-efficacy, they will be

more anxious about their performance.

The experience of preparing for and taking the test can affect students‟

affective attitudes. Students‟ affective attitudes that mostly appear during test and

test preparation can relate with their stress, anxiety, and depression (Zimmerman, 2000). Zimmerman further explains that this affective factor affects their learning strategies and determine their performance on test (2000). Students‟ anxiety is also related to the willingness to speak. Goh and Burns mention that anxiety is an affective factor which is strongly linked to oracy (2012, p. 26). This often appears in a situation where the test takers should process and produce language spontaneously without planning or rehearsal.

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There is a clear link between attitudes and motivation. Gardner (2006, p. 241) mentions that motivation and attitudes affect students‟ performance on test because students with higher levels of motivation will do better than students with lower levels. Students who are highly motivated to learn have clear reasons for engaging in the relevant activities. They also have good learning attitudes, including learning effort, persistence in the learning process, attention on learning process, desire to achieve the learning goal, and enthusiasm. The motivated students are also characterized by their effort to work hard, persevere in facing the difficulties, and satisfaction in the successful accomplishment of a learning task.

Learning goal itself drives motivation (Gardner, 1985, p. 61). Students who have clear learning goal will have high learning motivation. Highly-motivated students have strong desire to achieve the learning goal and make their efforts to succeed, thus have the good attitudes towards the activity to achieve the goal. Therefore, learning motivation reflects the reason why people learn the language. In order to complete the research on students‟ attitudes, the researcher

can gather information about students‟ perceptions on the test, whether it is

meaningful, good or bad, or beneficial (French et al, 2005, p. 1826).

2. English Competence

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understand a language. Krathwohl comes up with a concept of language competence which includes factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge (2002).

English competence includes proficiency in receiving and producing language. Being proficient in the target language enables the learners to communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for social interaction, academic, and professional areas (Gottlieb, 2004). Students are considered proficient if they can receive language input and produce comprehensible output (Krashen, 1982, p. 40). Proficient English users should be able to understand what other people say and able to produce language. In other words, the proficient English users should be able to communicate by using the target language. Gottlieb describes proficient English users as the non-native speakers of English whose oral and written language approach comparability to that of English native speakers (2004). These non-native speakers should be able to produce language acceptably and appropriately in the native speakers‟ environment.

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communicative competence includes speaking skills, knowledge of language and discourse, and communication strategies. Based on the model of speaking competence, people are considered proficient if they demonstrate grammatical and phonological accuracy, lexical knowledge, and discourse knowledge (Goh & Burns, 2012, p. 53). In other words, the proficient language users should be able produce accurate and meaningful sentences, pronounce words correctly, and demonstrate good understanding of the communicative purpose and social context of the language expressions.

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Dimensions Components

Knowledge of language Knowledge on linguistic elements, socioliguistic skills, communicative strategies, lexicogrammar, and discourse competence.

Language performance Demonstration of language knowledge in actual language use

Actual language use Real communication

Table 2.1 Dimensions of Language Competence (McNamara, 2007, p. 37)

In order to understand and speak the language, the students should master communicative competence including linguistic, socioliguistic, and pragmatic competence. The students are not only able to comprehend and use the linguistic aspects of language to communicate, but also demonstrate good knowledge on its functions and rules (Council of Europe, 2014, p. 160). The standard of language proficiency requires the students to produce language to convey meaning, message, and purpose comprehensibly and acceptably.

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Last, the students should be able to function in the actual language use. Hence, they can use what they learn in the classroom to communicate in the real communication using the target language.

Components Sub-components Elements

Language competence

Organizational competence

Lexicogrammatical competence and textual competence

Pragmatic competence

Knowledge on language functions and sociolinguistic competence Strategic

competence

Communication strategies

Verbal and non-verbal strategies Psychophysiological

mechanism

Information

processing in mind

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Understanding and producing information

Table 2.2 Components of Communicative Competence (Bachman, 1990, p. 87)

Adding to the concept of language proficiency, Bachman mentions that proficient language users should also apply grammatical rules and language use or its communicative functions to achieve communicative goal (1990, p. 83). Communicative competence or language proficiency can be described as competence or capacity for implementing and executing that competence in appropriate communicative language use. Hence, the students should make use of the linguistic elements of the target language to communicate accurately. Bachman explains that communicative competence and language proficiency includes three components; language competence, strategic competence, and pyschophysiological mechanism (1990, p. 87).

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competence and textual competence. Lexicogrammatical competence requires the students to be able to use the vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and phonology accurately in producing the language. In order to communicate meaningfully, the students should have textual competence to help them string sentences and unite utterances through cohesive devices and organizational patterns. The second language competence that the students should master is pragmatic competence. Pragmatic competence controls the use of language functions and sociolinguistic competence to produce meaningful utterances. The students should understand and use pragmatic principles which promote the relation between the utterances and the speech acts or that the speakers want to perform through the utterances. Hence, the speakers can communicate what they intend to do so. Pragmatic competence also helps the students to use appropriate language functions to perform the speech acts. Besides being able to communicate meaningfully, the speakers should demonstrate good sociolinguistic competence. By having that competence, they can perform language appropriately based on the context of situation and culture. The speakers will also be able to use the specific registers appropriate in the context.

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objects, and turn-taking strategies in a conversation. In addition to the mastery of the verbal strategies mentioned earlier, proficient language users should be able to use nonverbal strategies including gesture, facial expression, and eye contact.

Last, the students should apply pyschophysiological mechanisms in the communication. Psychophysiological mechanisms deal with the cognitive mechanisms in the minds of the speakers which are related to the way they process information. In the communication process, these mechanisms control the speakers to gain access to information. These determine how well the speakers understand the questions and give appropriate answers to the questions. Therefore, psychological mechanisms are important for maintaining communication in terms of the information exchange.

Cummins (1980 as cited in Arena 1990, p. 145) mentions that language proficiency is highly correlated with communicative competence because they are intercorrelated and inseparable. Communicative competence promotes language proficiency which requires the students to master the interpersonal communicative skills, such as accent, oral fluency, and sociolinguistic competence. Therefore, proficient language users can be assessed through their performance in real communication. Krathwohl adds that being proficient in the target language requires the speakers to retrieve relevant knowledge, understand the meaning, apply the knowledge of language, analyze the language, evaluate their language, and produce the language (2002).

Components Sub-components

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Sociolinguistic competence Knowledge of sociocultural rules and rules of discourse

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Strategic competence Verbal and non-verbal strategies

Table 2.3 Components of Communicative Competence (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, pp. 206-207)

Fulcher and Davidson summarize those components of communicative competence into three competences called grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence (2007, pp. 206-207). Grammatical competence includes knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics, and phonology. Sociolinguistic competence includes knowledge of sociocultural rules and rules of discourse to help the speakers to understand the social meaning of the utterances and the speakers‟ intentions. Strategic competence helps to build the speakers‟ verbal and

non-verbal strategies to perform communication.

3. Construct of Speaking

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each speaker can come up with and respond to ideas to let the speaking flow. Related to the ideas, speaking should be context dependent to carry out the effective communication. Each speaker should speak as relevant as possible to the context. Last, speaking is unplanned. Most communication occurs without plan, such as when running into a friend in a market and or when speaking about any topics randomly.

Different from speaking, writing is visual/motoric, non-transient, static, decontextualized, and planned. Writing requires visual and motoric activities which require the language users to use their reading and writing skills.Writing is non-transient because as written language, it can be traced back at anytime, hence long lasting. Considering the nature of writing, written language is static because it should refer to a main idea which is followed by the supporting sentences. Writing itself is also decontextualized because it is one-way communication where the context is determined by one participant. Last, writing is planned because the ideas and the topics should be arranged and planned before the texts are written. It also needs careful planning, starting from brainstorming of ideas until revising the text.

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maintained within relationships between the participants, whereas written language is maintained through the agreement and commitment to write.

Goh and Burns mention form or structure and meaning or content as cognitive aspects of speaking (2012, p. 36). The cognitive process itself includes conceptualization of topic or knowledge, formulation and organization of ideas in speaker‟s mental lexicon, and articulation. During speaking, the cognitive process

is also carried out in the form of self-monitoring on metalinguistic knowledge such as the accuracy of grammar and pronunciation as well as rapid speech production. Therefore, speaking is considered as a complex process of communication because when the speakers communicate ideas, they also monitor their speech production at the same time. Adding to the cognitive components of speaking, the speakers should be able to communicate the message precisely, accurately, and coherently with few pauses and hesitations. Failure to do so can cause communication breakdown.

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4. Spoken English Proficiency Test (TKBI) a. The definition of test

Test is a way to gather information about people‟s language ability (Hughes, 1989, p. 4; Brown, 2003, p. 3; Carr, 2011, p. 1). The result of the test reflects what the students are able and unable to do with the language. Test can be defined as an instrument to measure language ability (Douglas 2000, p. 2; Bachman, 1990, p. 20; Brown, 2003, p. 3; Davidson, 2007, p. 7). This definition describes the test as a medium to measure the language performance of the students. The test result is in the form of measurable and numerical score. Therefore, it will be easier to determine the passing grade and criteria of success.

Test is also defined as a method to measure a person's ability or knowledge in a given domain (Brown, 2000, p. 384). Conducting a test is necessary to identify the students‟ language competence based on the domain, such as reading, writing, listening, speaking, and lexico-grammatical competence. The result will show if the students can be characterized as proficient English users in each specific domain. Besides being used to make decision about people‟s language skills and competence, test is also used as a method to identify what competence still needs to be improved (Fulcher, 2010, p. 4). The students‟ scores on the test

will show what they still lack and what learning still need to be done in the classroom.

b. English test at university level

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links the test to students‟ lives (Utsumi & Nam Hau, 2010). Students‟ English competence is expected to help students‟ pass international exam, including the standardized test such as TOEFL and IELTS which will be useful for them when they apply a job in international company and study abroad. As university graduates are expected to be able to compete in world economy, university academic programs are to meet the economic growth demands of the country by encouraging the students to speak English in the campus, raising the importance of learning English, and conducting useful English test. Therefore, the university can create self-regulated learners. In Vietnam graduation rates also become the challenge in implementing English at university.

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shows that it brings influential impact on what students‟ learn in the universities and their learning motivation. The exam-oriented students tend to put more effort to improve their English competence to pass the test.

The same policy is also applied in most Mexican universities. English test, mostly TOEFL test, is required in most universities as a condition for the students to earn their degree (Despagne, 2010). The demand of international education in Mexican universities is perceived as the underlying factor that urges the universities to set high standard of English proficiency in the test. It aims to prepare the students for labor market that they will be able to study abroad or compete to get well-paying jobs and achieve any positions, hence can improve their life and social status. Therefore, the undergraduate students are required to take the test to earn their degree, so they will be well-prepared and well-equipped with English competence.

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working-life situation, hence can assess students‟ ability to function in international communication.

Another reason why English competence is needed in higher institution is because most scientific publications are written in English. In Swedish universities, English is intensively taught to help students understand academic texts, including articles, theses, and textbooks of all disciplines (Johansson & Jonsson, 2006). Therefore, the students are required to take English courses during their years in the university. English test is summatively conducted to monitor students‟ English competence and progress in learning English. By doing so, the students can make use of their English to learn other subjects.

TKBI is conducted differently as end-program test. Different from entry test or in-program test, TKBI is conducted at the end of learning program in the university as a requirement to earn degree. Instead of paper-based test, TKBI is designed as speaking test. Students‟ abilities to participate in active

communication are assessed during interview process. The result of the test is used for consideration whether the students have achieved the expected language proficiency level to compete in job seeking.

c. Speaking test

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interaction, TKBI focuses on students‟ competence to maintain communication.

In order to do so, the test should measure whether the students‟ questions and answers are relevant and understandable to get message across (Luoma, 2004, p. 23). In addition to the communicative competence, speaking test also measures students‟ accuracy and fluency. The test rubric provides discrete criteria to

measure students‟ accuracy in terms of the grammatical structure, pronunciation,

and diction. The test also tries to measure students‟ ability to communicate fluently without making many pauses which can distract the delivery of the message.

TKBI is described as spoken proficiency test. The contents of the test are not related to what are learned in the courses, but based on the language competence that the students should have. The test contents are used to measure whether the students can perform certain communicative tasks. Since it is communicative test, the assessment standards should focus on the use of language as the tool for communication. Therefore, the Common European Framework of Reference is used to set the standards of success because it describes the qualities of proficient language users (Nunan, 2015). The standards are suitable for communicative test because they focus on the active use of language.

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vocabulary range and produce meaningful language where errors made by the students do not interfere with the meaning and pronunciation is intelligible. They are also expected to present well-organized ideas during their speech. Students who have this proficiency level can maintain meaningful interaction where they can answer and ask questions. Those standards are derived from CEFR and developed into speaking rubric used for assessment (Appendix 5).

Due to the different grading system between CEFR and university rubric, the descriptors in CEFR level are adapted to develop the assessment rubric for the test. In CEFR level, the highest grade for intermediate level is C1, while the grading system in the university considers A as the highest grade. Based on the policy, the students should earn B- to pass the test. The evaluation standards describes that students who deserve B- at least, should be able to communicate comprehensibly where the pauses for grammatical checking and lexical planning do not affect the intelligibility. They can communicate in variety of topics including familiar matters or subjects within their fields of interest and organize their ideas. The number of errors should be reasonable and rare. Hence, they do not alter the meaning. These descriptions correspond to the CEFR standard of C1 in particular and set the passing grade of TKBI test. Thus, intermediate level students should have those qualities.

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before they graduate. It will ensure that all graduates of Sanata Dharma University have good mastery of English. Different from other universities, the English test in Sanata Dharma University is designed as speaking test. Although considered less practical than paper-based test, speaking test is favored because it ensures that the successful students have active English competence which means that they can function in interactive communication using English.

Test of speaking proficiency should engage the examiner and examinee in a communicative interaction (Huei-Chun, 2000). Therefore, TKBI test is designed to maintain interaction between the examiners and test takers. The face to face interview follows good speaking test format to promote communication (Khamkien, 2010). The test format will be effective to measure the students‟ oral competence in the real target language use. Speaking test is conducted in the form of interview to provide real information about students‟ strengths and weaknesses in understanding and using language. Their competence can be assessed from the way they answer and ask questions. However, the examiners should consider the weakness and the strength when they conduct individual interview. The weakness of conducting individual interview is that it takes more time and effort. On the other hand, individual interview is preferred because it is reliable and valid to measure the intended proficiency level and the test takers‟ actual proficiency.

Talking about the assessment criteria for speaking test, there are some elements that should be assessed to measure speakers‟ proficiency level. Koizumi and In‟nami (2014) mention complexity, accuracy, and fluency as some aspects to

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vocabulary, grammatical accuracy, and smooth production during speaking. In addition to grammatical accuracy, fluency, and vocabulary, the examiners should measure students‟ proficiency on the pronunciation, organization, coherence,

content, and turn taking skill if referring the C1level of CEFR (Khamkien, 2010, p. 186; Pajupuu et al, 2010, p. 131). Therefore, the students should communicate using good pronunciation, well-organized ideas, meaningful and relevant content, and good interactional skill.

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Table 2.4 Common Reference Levels of CEFR (Council of Europe, 2014, p. 24)

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should be able to describe personal experience, personal ability, and future plan, negotiate, analyze problem, and give solution. The students should pass job interview which is simulated in TKBI test. For the test procedure, the students should register themselves to Testing Center in Language Institute of Sanata Dharma University and the test is also conducted there on the last week of the month. The score can be checked one week after the test. If they do not pass the test, they will retake it until they succeed.

Usefulness of speaking test can be seen from its reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact, and practicability (Akiyama, 2003). The speaking test should be reliable to give information and inferences about the students‟ proficiency (Douglas‟ 2009, p. 10). Fulcher mentions that construct

validity of a test measures what the test is supposed to measure (2003, p. 117). Test should be designed based on its construct, its purpose, and its intended participants. The test designers should consider the test purpose or the test function. In order to make the test valid, it can be designed based on the test blueprint and the test content which should be covered in the test.

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problems, state preferences, and describe people or objects related to their academic and future professional lives. In the end of the conversation, the students should ask questions to the examiners. The rubric also describes the level of proficiency, such as the grammatical knowledge, pronunciation, vocabulary, fluency, clarity and organization based on the proficiency level of CEFR.

Speaking test can be useful if it is authentic. Test authenticity can be maintained through its focus to carry out genuine and real language use (Akiyama, 2003). Owing to the nature of communication, the speaking test should provide interactive communication between the examiners and test takers. Useful test should also consider its impacts to the test takers, both positive and negative. Test should be reliable, so when the test is administered at different time, the result will be the same with the previous result. Although the test is not practical, but it is effective to measure students‟ speaking competence.

Fulcher also mentions that good test should provide both freedom and control to the test takers (2003, p. 135). The test should invite more answers from the students. They should be given freedom to explore their ideas but controlled in terms of the acceptable and relevant answers. Nevertheless, the ideas should be coherent and well organized (Czaplak, 2014). In order to produce coherent and well-organized ideas, the speakers can use connectors and cohesive devices.

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students to demonstrate their competence on linguistic form and meaning (Sato, 2007).

d. The purpose of testing

According to Douglas, the purpose of language testing is to assess whether the students have achieved certain level of competence in the target language (2010, p. 1). Hughes elaborates the purpose of the test into some objectives (1989, p.8). First, the test tries to measure students‟ language proficiency. It seeks what the students are competent or lack at. Second, test aims to discover how successful students have been in achieving the course objectives. This test is usually conducted in the end of the course or learning program to identify whether the objectives are successfully achieved. Third, test tries to diagnose students' strengths and weaknesses. This kind of diagnostic test aims to identify what the students still lack and need to improve. Last, test aims to assist placement of students based on their initial proficiency level. This test is conducted before the learning program to put the students based on their level, so they will start learning based on their level of competence. These tests serve one main purpose, which is to make inferences or decisions about one‟s competence.

Being specific, the purpose of speaking test is to identify students‟

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Generally, the purpose of TKBI itself is similar with the purpose of speaking test in common. However, since it is conducted at the end of the study program and taken before undergraduate thesis defense, TKBI aims to improve the quality of the university graduates who are able to compete in working world. It will ensure that all graduates of Sanata Dharma University have the ability to speak in English for professional purpose. The implementation of TKBI is expected to equip students with attitudes and soft skills which become very important for working world. This purpose has been established in Surat Keputusan Rektor Nomor 049/I/2009 about Sistem Poin Kegiatan Kemahasiswaan

(Appendix 6). Before finishing their study, each student is required to fulfill 10 points, and one of the points is valued from active communication skills in English. For non-English-department students, this point can be earned from TKBI test.

e. Effects of test on students

Sanata Dharma University conducts Spoken English Competence Test (TKBI) as an e