Adler anticipated the future direction of the helping professions by calling upon therapists to become social activists and by addressing the prevention and remediation of social conditions that were contrary to social interest and resulted in human problems. Adler’s pioneering efforts on prevention services in mental health led him to increasingly advocate for the role of Individual Psychology in schools and families. Because Individual Psychology is based on a growth model, not a medical model, it is applicable to such varied spheres of life as child guidance; parent–child counseling; couples counseling; family counseling and therapy; group counseling and therapy; individual counsel- ing with children, adolescents, and adults; cultural confl icts; correctional and rehabilitation counseling; and mental health institutions. Adlerian principles
have been widely applied to substance abuse programs, social problems to combat poverty and crime, problems of the aged, school systems, religion, and business.
APPLICATION TO EDUCATION Adler (1930/1978) advocated training both teachers and parents in effective practices that foster the child’s social interests and result in a sense of competence and self-worth. Adler had a keen interest in applying his ideas to education, especially in fi nding ways to remedy faulty life- styles of schoolchildren. He initiated a process to work with students in groups and to educate parents and teachers. By providing teachers with ways to pre- vent and correct basic mistakes of children, he sought to promote social inter- est and mental health. Adler was ahead of his time in advocating for schools to take an active role in developing social skills and character education as well as teaching the basics. Many of the major teacher education models are based on principles of Adlerian psychology (see Albert, 1996). Besides Adler, the main proponent of Individual Psychology as a foundation for the teaching–learning process was Dreikurs (1968, 1971).
APPLICATION TO PARENT EDUCATION Parent education seeks to improve the relationship between parent and child by promoting greater understand- ing and acceptance. Parents are taught how to recognize the mistaken goals of children and to use logical and natural consequences to guide children toward more productive behavior. Adlerian parent education also stresses listening to children, helping children accept the consequences of their behavior, ap- plying emotion coaching, holding family meetings, and using encouragement.
The two leading parent education programs in the United States are both based on Adlerian principles: they are STEP (Dinkmeyer & McKay, 1997) and Active Parenting (Popkin, 1993).
APPLICATION TO COUPLES COUNSELING Adlerian therapy with couples is designed to assess a couple’s beliefs and behaviors while educating them in more effective ways of meeting their relational goals. Clair Hawes has devel- oped an approach to couples counseling within the Adlerian brief therapy model. In addition to addressing the compatibility of lifestyles, Hawes looks at the early recollections of the marriage and each partner’s relationship to a broad set of life tasks, including occupation, social relationships, intimate relationships, spirituality, self-care, and self-worth (Bitter et al., 1998; Hawes, 1993; Hawes & Blanchard, 1993). Carlson, Watts, and Maniacci (2006) describe how Adlerians achieve the goals of brief couples therapy: They foster social interest, assist couples in decreasing feelings of inferiority and overcoming discouragement, help couples modify their views and goals, help couples to feel a sense of quality in their relationships, and provide skill-building op- portunities. Therapists aim to create solutions for problems, increase choices of couples, and help clients discover and use their individual and collective resources.
The full range of techniques applicable to other forms of counseling can be used when working with couples. In couples counseling, couples are taught
specifi c techniques that enhance communication and cooperation. Some of these techniques are listening, paraphrasing, giving feedback, having mar- riage conferences, listing expectations, doing homework, and enacting prob- lem solving. Adlerians use psychoeducational methods and skills training in counseling couples. For useful books on this topic, see Carlson and Dinkmeyer (2003) and Sperry, Carlson, and Peluso (2006).
Adlerians will sometimes see clients as a couple, sometimes individually, and then alternately as a couple and as individuals. Rather than looking for who is at fault in the relationship, the therapist considers the lifestyles of the partners and the interaction of the two lifestyles. Emphasis is given to helping them decide if they want to maintain their relationship, and, if so, what changes they are willing to make.
APPLICATION TO FAMILY COUNSELING With its emphasis on the family constellation, holism, and the freedom of the therapist to improvise, Adler’s approach contributed to the foundation of the family therapy perspective.
Adlerians working with families focus on the family atmosphere, the fam- ily constellation, and the interactive goals of each member (Bitter, Roberts, &
Sonstegard, 2002). The family atmosphere is the climate characterizing the re- lationship between the parents and their attitudes toward life, gender roles, decision making, competition, cooperation, dealing with confl ict, responsibil- ity, and so forth. This atmosphere, including the role models the parents pro- vide, infl uences the children as they grow up. The therapeutic process seeks to increase awareness of the interaction of the individuals within the family system. Those who practice Adlerian family therapy strive to understand the goals, beliefs, and behaviors of each family member and the family as an entity in its own right. Adler’s and Dreikurs’s infl uence on family therapy is covered in more depth in Chapter 14.
APPLICATION TO GROUP COUNSELING Adler and his coworkers used a group approach in their child guidance centers in Vienna as early as 1921 (Dreikurs, 1969). Dreikurs extended and popularized Adler’s work with groups and used group psychotherapy in his private practice for more than 40 years. Although Dreikurs introduced group therapy into his psychiatric practice as a way to save time, he quickly discovered some unique characteristics of groups that made them an effective way of helping people change. Inferiority feelings can be challenged and counteracted effectively in groups, and the mistaken con- cepts and values that are at the root of social and emotional problems can be deeply infl uenced because the group is a value-forming agent (Sonstegard &
Bitter, 2004).
The rationale for Adlerian group counseling is based on the premise that our problems are mainly of a social nature. The group provides the social con- text in which members can develop a sense of belonging, social connectedness, and community. Sonstegard and Bitter (2004) write that group participants come to see that many of their problems are interpersonal in nature, that their behavior has social meaning, and that their goals can best be understood in the framework of social purposes.
From my perspective, the use of early recollections is a unique feature of Adlerian group counseling. As mentioned earlier, from a series of early memo- ries, individuals can get a clear sense of their mistaken notions, current atti- tudes, social interests, and possible future behavior. Through the mutual shar- ing of these early recollections, members develop a sense of connection with one another, and group cohesion is increased. The group becomes an agent of change because of the improved interpersonal relationships among members and the emergence of hope.
I particularly value the way Adlerian group counselors implement action strategies at each of the group sessions and especially during the reorientation stage where new decisions are made and goals are modifi ed. To challenge self- limiting assumptions, members are encouraged to act as if they were the persons they want to be. They are asked to “catch themselves” in the process of repeating old patterns that have led to ineffective or self-defeating behavior. The members come to appreciate that if they hope to change, they need to set tasks for them- selves, apply group lessons to daily life, and take steps in fi nding solutions to their problems. This fi nal stage is characterized by group leaders and members work- ing together to challenge erroneous beliefs about self, life, and others. During this stage, members are considering alternative beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes.
Adlerian group counseling can be considered a brief approach to treat- ment. The core characteristics associated with brief group therapy include rapid establishment of a strong therapeutic alliance, clear problem focus and goal alignment, rapid assessment, emphasis on active and directive therapeutic in- terventions, a focus on strengths and abilities of clients, an optimistic view of change, a focus on both the present and the future, and an emphasis on tailoring treatment to the unique needs of clients in the most time-effi cient manner pos- sible (Carlson et al., 2006).
One advantage of a time-limited framework is that it conveys to clients the expectation that change will occur in a short period of time. Specifying the number of sessions can motivate both the members and the group counselor to stay focused on desired outcomes and to work as effi ciently as possible. Because Adlerian group leaders recognize that many of the changes in the members take place between the group sessions, therapy is designed to help members stay focused on specifi c personal goals. Members can decide how they want to best use the time available to them, and they can formulate a set of understand- ings that will guide the group.
Adlerian brief group therapy is addressed by Sonstegard, Bitter, Pelonis- Peneros, and Nicoll (2001). For more on the Adlerian approach to group coun- seling, refer to Theory and Practice of Group Counseling (Corey, 2008, chap. 7), Corey (1999, 2003), and Sonstegard and Bitter (2004).
Adlerian Therapy From a Multicultural Perspective
Strengths From a Diversity Perspective
Adlerian theory addressed social equality issues and social embeddedness of humans long before multiculturalism assumed central importance in the pro- fession (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Adler introduced notions with implications
toward multiculturalism that have as much or more relevance today as they did during Adler’s time (Pedersen, as cited in Nystul, 1999b). Some of these ideas include (1) the importance of the cultural context, (2) the emphasis on health as opposed to pathology, (3) a holistic perspective on life, (4) the value of under- standing individuals in terms of their core goals and purposes, (5) the ability to exercise freedom within the context of societal constraints, and (6) the focus on prevention and the development of a proactive approach in dealing with prob- lems. Adler’s holistic perspective is an articulate expression of what Pedersen calls a “culture-centered” or multicultural approach to counseling. Carlson and Englar-Carlson (2008) maintain that Adlerian theory is well suited to counsel- ing diverse populations and doing social justice work. They assert: “Perhaps Adler’s greatest contribution is that he developed a theory that recognizes and stresses the effects of social class, racism, sex, and gender on the behavior of individuals. His ideas, therefore, are well received by those living in today’s global society” (p. 134).
Although the Adlerian approach is called Individual Psychology, its focus is on the person in a social context. This approach addresses cultural issues in both the assessment and treatment process. Adlerian therapists encourage clients to defi ne themselves within their social environments. Adlerians allow broad concepts of age, ethnicity, lifestyle, and gender differences to emerge in therapy. To their credit, Adlerians practice in fl exible ways from a theory that can be applied to work with diverse client populations. The therapeutic process is grounded within a client’s culture and worldview rather than attempting to fi t clients into preconceived models.
In their analysis of the various theoretical approaches to counseling, Arciniega and Newlon (2003) state that Adlerian theory holds a great deal of promise for addressing diversity issues. They note a number of characteristics of Adlerian theory that are congruent with the values of many racial, cultural, and ethnic groups, including the emphasis on understanding the individual in a familial and sociocultural context; the role of social interest and contributing to others; and the focus on belonging and the collective spirit. Cultures that stress the welfare of the social group and emphasize the role of the family will fi nd the basic assumptions of Adlerian psychology to be consistent with their values.
Adlerian therapists tend to focus on cooperation and socially oriented val- ues as opposed to competitive and individualistic values (Carlson & Carlson, 2000). Native American clients, for example, tend to value cooperation over competition. One such client told a story about a group of boys who were in a race. When one boy got ahead of the others, he would slow down and allow the others to catch up, and they all made it to the fi nish line at the same time. Al- though the coach tried to explain that the point of the race was for an individual to fi nish fi rst, these boys were socialized to work together cooperatively as a group. Adlerian therapy is easily adaptable to cultural values that emphasize community.
Clients who enter therapy are often locked into rigid ways of perceiving, interpreting, and behaving. It is likely that they have not questioned how their culture has infl uenced them, and they may feel resigned to “the way things
are.” Mozdzierz and his colleagues (1986) characterize these clients as myopic and contend that one of the therapist’s functions is to provide them with an- other pair of glasses that will enable them to see things more clearly. The Ad- lerian emphasis on the subjective fashion in which people view and interpret their world leads to a respect for clients’ unique values and perceptions. Adle- rian counselors use interpretations as an opportunity for clients to view things from a different perspective, yet it is up to the clients to decide whether to use these glasses. Adlerians do not decide for clients what they should change or what their goals should be; rather, they work collaboratively with their clients in ways that enable them to reach their self-defi ned goals.
Not only is Adlerian theory congruent with the values of people from di- verse cultural groups, but the approach offers fl exibility in applying a range of cognitive and action-oriented techniques to helping clients explore their practi- cal problems in a cultural context. Adlerian practitioners are not wedded to any particular set of procedures. Instead, they are conscious of the value of fi tting their techniques to each client’s situation. Although they utilize a diverse range of methods, most of them do conduct a lifestyle assessment. This assessment is heavily focused on the structure and dynamics within the client’s family.
Because of their cultural background, many clients have been conditioned to respect their family heritage and to appreciate the impact of their family on their own personal development. It is essential that counselors be sensitive to the confl icting feelings and struggles of their clients. If counselors demonstrate an understanding of these cultural values, it is likely that these clients will be receptive to an exploration of their lifestyle. Such an exploration will involve a detailed discussion of their own place within their family.
If “culture” is defi ned broadly (to include age, roles, lifestyle, and gender dif- ferences), cultural differences can be found even within a single family. The Ad- lerian approach emphasizes the value of subjectively understanding the unique world of an individual. Culture is one signifi cant dimension for grasping the subjective and experiential perspective of an individual. Culture infl uences each person, but it is expressed within each individual differently, according to the perception, evaluation, and interpretation of culture that the person holds.
It should be noted that Adlerians investigate culture in much the same way that they approach birth order and family atmosphere. Culture is a vantage point from which life is experienced= and interpreted; it is also a background of values, history, convictions, beliefs, customs, and expectations that must be ad- dressed by the individual. Contemporary Adlerians appreciate the role of spiri- tuality and religion in the lives of clients, since these factors are manifestations of social interest and responsibility to others (Carlson & Englar-Carlson, 2008).
Adlerian counselors seek to be sensitive to cultural and gender issues. Adler was one of the fi rst psychologists at the turn of the century to advocate equality for women. He recognized that men and women were different in many ways, but he felt that the two genders were deserving of equal value and respect. This respect and appreciation for difference extends to culture as well as gender.
Adlerians fi nd in different cultures opportunities for viewing the self, others, and the world in multidimensional ways. Indeed, the strengths of one culture can often help correct the mistakes in another culture.
Shortcomings From a Diversity Perspective
As is true of most Western models, the Adlerian approach tends to focus on the self as the locus of change and responsibility. Because other cultures have different conceptions, this primary emphasis on changing the autonomous self may be problematic for many clients. Assumptions about the Western nuclear family are built into the Adlerian concepts of birth order and family constel- lation. For people brought up in extended family contexts, some of these ideas may be less relevant or at least may need to be reconfi gured.
Adlerian theory has some potential drawbacks for clients from those cultures who are not interested in exploring past childhood experiences, early memories, family experiences, and dreams. This approach also has limited effectiveness with clients who do not understand the purpose of exploring the details of a life- style analysis when dealing with life’s current problems (Arciniega & Newlon, 2003). In addition, the culture of some clients may contribute to their viewing the counselor as the “expert” and expecting that the counselor will provide them with solutions to their problems. For these clients, the role of the Adlerian thera- pist may pose problems because Adlerian therapists are not experts in solving other people’s problems. Instead, they view it as their function to teach people alternative methods of coping with life concerns.
Many clients who have pressing problems are likely to be hesitant to dis- cuss areas of their lives that they may not see as connected to the struggles that bring them into therapy. Individuals may believe that it is inappropriate to re- veal family information. On this point Carlson and Carlson (2000) suggest that a therapist’s sensitivity and understanding of a client’s culturally constructed beliefs about disclosing family information are critical. If therapists are able to demonstrate an understanding of a client’s cultural values, it is likely that this client will be more open to the assessment and treatment process. Still, Jim Bitter (personal communication, February 17, 2007) has noted that when he is working for the fi rst time in a new and different culture, he makes on average about fi ve mistakes a day. In my opinion, what is more important than making mistakes is how we recover from them.
Summary and Evaluation
Adler was far ahead of his time, and most contemporary therapies have incor- porated at least some of his ideas. Individual Psychology assumes that people are motivated by social factors; are responsible for their own thoughts, feelings, and actions; are the creators of their own lives, as opposed to being helpless victims; and are impelled by purposes and goals, looking more toward the fu- ture than back to the past.
The basic goal of the Adlerian approach is to help clients identify and change their mistaken beliefs about, self, others, and life and thus participate more fully in a social world. Clients are not viewed as psychologically sick but as discouraged.
The therapeutic process helps individuals become aware of their patterns and make some basic changes in their style of living, which lead to changes in the way they feel and behave. The role of the family in the development of the individual is emphasized. Therapy is a cooperative venture that challenges clients to translate