E- Government: Two Steps Forward, One Step Backwards?
II. Background
The library needs to become an integral channel of information seeking and the librarian a commonly accepted interpersonal source of information.
Another assumption of this chapter is that there is not one perception of libraries and librarians applicable to all information seekers, but rather different perceptions or mental models depending upon the group of individuals. The notion that different groups of information seekers have different perspectives of libraries and librarians is supported by data from studies of information needs. Factors that influence information needs and information seeking behaviors have been reported in user studies that can be found in the library and information science literature.1Personal variables that have been identified as influencing information needs and information seeking behavior include discipline, age, task, rank, gender, institutional setting, and education. This means that academic, public, and special libraries and librarians will be perceived differently. There will be some commonalities within settings, so that to some degree, public librarians will be perceived in the same way. Yet, within each setting, not all libraries and librarians will be perceived in the same way. Culture, both geographic and institutional, will influence the perception of information seekers and that will vary from organization to organization within similar settings. Even within a specific organization or institution, perceptions will vary with specific homogenous sub-groups. For example, in an academic setting, the perspective of undergraduate students will differ from that of graduate students that in turn will differ from the perspective of faculty.
This chapter begins with a discussion of two models of information seeking from the library and information science literature that portray the role of libraries and librarians in information seeking. Then data and research findings that shed light on how information seeking behavior has been influenced are presented. Results of a survey conducted at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland at College Park provide further evidence of how MBA students there perceive librarians.
Finally, an updated model of the typical information seeker’s perspective of libraries and librarians is proposed.
libraries and information centers: self-help and intermediated help.
In Taylor’s model, the information seeker first consults personal files and then decides whether to discuss the information need with a colleague or to visit a library or information center. Those who first consult with a colleague may later visit an information center. Those information seekers who do choose to visit the library or information center may search by him/herself or ask for the assistance of a librarian or information professional. In a sense, the process is like a funnel, with all information seekers beginning with a search of personal files, and fewer and fewer information seekers passing from one stage to the next. So, some information seekers will end the process with the search of personal files, others will end the process after communicating with a colleague. Still fewer will visit a library and even fewer will consult with a librarian.
Zweizig (1976, pp. 50, 51)presented a model that examines “the library in the life of the user.” In this model, Zweizig includes interpersonal sources of information, media, government agencies, and public libraries. Unlike the Taylor model that focused on special libraries, Zweizig notes that the relationship among the various sources of information has not been examined.
The world today is a different place than it was in 1968 and in 1977.
Information technology has developed at a rapid pace and has had a huge impact on access to information and on information seeking behaviors.
Technology has also influenced lifestyles in general and these changes in lifestyle, specifically the “24£7” (24 hours per day, 7 days per week) expectation, have had repercussions on information access and information seeking. Many of these trends are described in the 2003 OCLC Environmental Scan (De Rosaet al., 2004).
A. Personal Factors and Information Seeking
Personal factors identified in studies, such as age and education continue to influence information seeking behaviors. Wiegand (1998) proposed the notion of “personal information economy.” By this, he means that different types of information hold a different value to different people because of personal values which are influenced by many factors. In addition to differences based on personal values and factors influencing use, there are factors that cause information access gaps. According to the Pew Internet and American Life Project, Internet access has grown across the board but there are clear demographic gaps by age, income, ethnicity, educational level, and geographic location (Lenhartet al., 2003, p. 4).
Other variables that were identified as influencing information seeking behaviors are perceived ease of use, perceived accessibility, and prior experience (Allen and Gerstberger, 1967;Rosenberg, 1967). These factors, identified as having played a role in the adoption of the Internet (Abelset al., 1996), most likely continue to influence information seeking behaviors. In general, information seekers select sources of information that are easy to use and easily accessible, even if the quality of the information provided was not considered to be as high. Channels of information and sources of information that have barriers to use will not become a part of information seeking behaviors. Library services are fraught with barriers.Fagan and Ruppel (2002) found that students perceived many barriers to asking questions at the reference desk. Accessing library resources from outside the library presents various barriers, unlike accessing free resources on the Web. Due to licensing constraints, the number of simultaneous searches may be limited, user validation is required, search capabilities may be limited, and some library resources simply may be available only to those who visit the library.
Simplifying access to resources and eliminating barriers would likely increase usage.
B. Demographics
Information seekers today represent four distinct generations (with a fifth generation about to begin to seek information).Zemkeet al.(1999) discuss differences in the four generations from the perspective of training. Many characteristics of information seeking relate to characteristics of training.
There is no one size fits all and each generation has its own style. For training, the authors recommend understanding the sociology of the four generations, offering many options, using their icons, language and precepts to
“accommodate personal scheduling needs, work– life balance issues and learning styles (p. 54).” Table I synthesizes and summarizes characteristics that differentiate the information seeking styles of the different generations (Zemkeet al., 1999, 2001;Lancaster, 2003).
C. Technology Beyond the Internet
Laptops, personal data assistants (PDAs), and cell phones now define our society. PDAs and cell phones offer text messaging capabilities. Wireless access is being offered in more and more places, including coffee shops and fast-food restaurants (Rose, 2003). Instant messaging which gained huge popularity among pre-teens and teens has to a great extent replaced the telephone and to some extent e-mail. Instant messaging now allows
Table I
Information Seeking Behavior and the Generations
Generation
Traditionals
(Silents, Veterans) Boomers X-ers
Millenials (Nexters) Approximate dates
of birth
1922–1943 (pre-WWII) 1943–1960 1961–1980 1981–1999
Characteristics that influence information seeking
(a) Accustomed to top–down flow of information (b) Formal (c) Learning
environment that is stable
(a) Formal feedback (b) Interactive and
non-authoritarian
(a) Highly independent (b) Entrepreneur (c) Comfortable with
change
(d) Raised with instant access
(e) Want frequent, immediate feedback (f) Self-directed
(a) Globally concerned (b) Diverse
(c) Cyberliterate (d) Media savvy (e) Collaborative (f) Multitaskers (g) Teamwork (h) Technology (i) Multi-media (g) Sample and learn by
doing
(h) Not attracted to classroom Information seeking (a) Like materials that are
organized and summarized (b) Example: Reader’s
Digest (c) Dewey Decimal
(a) Easy to scan format (b) Example: Business
Week; USA Today;
People
(a) Prefer fewer words (b) Do not read as much (c) Visual stimulation—
headlines, subheads, quotes, graphics, lists (d) Example: Spin, Fast
Company, Wired, chat-room dialogue
(a) Readers
(b) Lively and varied materials
(c) Chat (instant messaging) (d) Search engine (Google)
Source:Summarized fromZemkeet al.(1999, 2001), andLancaster (2003).
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the addition of video and voice. Instant messaging has expanded beyond the home and now finds itself in the workplace. Information seekers find themselves faced with a wide array of channels to access information, libraries and librarians. They have access any time and any place.
D. Self-help and 2437
With access from home on the rise, information seekers now expect to be able to shop, make travel arrangements, send e-mail, and chat with friends any time, or “24£7.” The increase in the self-service trend is evident in a variety of industries (Harmon, 2003;De Rosaet al., 2004). While self-help has been available in banks and gas stations for some time, there is a trend toward self- service in grocery and other retail stores. Airlines now use automated kiosks for checking in passengers. Some ski resorts in Colorado have installed
“skiosks” that dispense lift tickets. The growth of self-service machines is due in part to improved technology. However,Harmon (2003)notes that another reason to turn to self-help machines is to avoid frustrating experiences with service workers. In any case, the trend toward self-help is growing.