Port Operations
4.2 BERTHS, FACILITIES, AND EQUIPMENT
In a technology-intensive, capital-intensive industry such as maritime shipping, state-of- the-art designs and sustainable improvements are clearly driven by the market’s demand in the most compelling manner. Port planners are focused on providing excellent opera- tions increased efficiency of time, land, berthing space, and equipment. This is achieved by monitoring and controlling two major sectors:
i. Performance management, which focuses on efficiency
ii. Capacity management, which aims to optimize utilization and reduce costs in three core areas: (a) administration, (b) service, and (c) resources
Details of each are demonstrated in Figure 4.7.
4.2.1 Berth Performance versus Capacity
Port operations are improved through optimizing port capacity and overall performance.
A port’s performance indicators are both financial and operational and are based on data collected from each terminal or berth. The principal productivity indicators pertain to its (i) output, (ii) utilization-to-capacity ratio, (iii) productivity, and (iv) service time.
a. A berth’s output is measured in terms of cargo volume handled annually, whereas a ship’s output estimates cargo handled per hour.
b. Utilization is measured in terms of berth occupancy, ashore equipment occu- pancy, and the occupancy of warehousing and storage areas.
b) Space capacity:
–Terminals Berths –Warehouse and
c) Berths occupancy = availability/time%
d) Berths = cargo volume handled annually Ships’ productivity:
e) Ships’ dwell time prior to berthing f) Ships’ turn-round time
g) Cargo volume handled per hour (per voyage) Cargo handling productivity:
h) Gear movements per hour vs. lease per hour Storage and warehousing productivity:
i) Occupancy vs. revenue Port capacity management
Aims: high utilization and low cost
Portperformance management (Administration–resources–services)
Input resources Administration
a) Technology capacity:
machinery and IT
c) Logistics:
Transport Network
a) Ships’ scheduling b) Traffic control c) Cargo handling d) Capacity and
Output Services (Time-management, financial, and operational) Port management productivity:
a) Contracts obtained
b) Input vs. output, or occupancy vs. revenue Berths’ productivity:
storage market forecasting e) Input and output
monitor and control
FIGURE 4.7 Port planning: performance and capacity management. (Courtesy of M.G.
Burns.)
c. Productivity is measured by means of an estimation of traffic per year or through- put per year, or handling costs based on time efficiency, the factors of produc- tion, versus output and profitability. Namely, a ship’s productivity is estimated in terms of cargo handled per hour; a berth’s productivity is measured in terms of cargo handled per month or year; and the productivity of cargo handling equip- ment is measured in terms of movements per hour.
d. Since service indicators are associated with berthing, they are measured in terms of (i) berth and shore facilities availability/time (%), (ii) ship’s dwell time prior to berthing, and (iii) ships’ turnaround time, that is, until departure. Modern ports are integrated with the entire local logistics system; hence, their service indica- tors may entail cargo handling at port, as well as logistics turnaround time.
Port planning aims to properly schedule ships to berths in a manner that balances between congestion and underutilization, considering time allowance and the ship’s prin- cipal characteristics, that is, ship’s type, principal dimensions such as draft, LOA, DWT, and quantity of cargo to be loaded and discharged. Dwell time reflects the time cargo remains idle in a terminal’s in-transit storage space or warehouse, in the process of dis- tribution and further carriage. Long cargo dwell times while at port is a vital concern of modern ports, as bottlenecks create slow process times, and may encourage the creation of new, competing trade routes.
In order to estimate in approximation the capacity of a berth, the following econo- metric formula is used:
BC = (O × E × EM × H × TEU) (4.1)
where BC is berth capacity; O is berth occupancy; E is the number of cargo handling equipment (e.g., two cranes); EM is cargo handling equipment per hour; H reflects a port’s working hours a day, shifts per day, working days a week, and so on; and TEU denotes where the number of TEUs per crane move needs to be assessed (Port of Honolulu 2012).
4.2.2 Port Operations: The Place Where Capacity and Performance Meet Docking Facilities
A docking facility is a port structure next to a pier, that is, between land and water, where ships can load and discharge cargo, and passengers can embark and disembark. It is a sturdy construction consisting of berths, where ships can secure themselves throughout their stay at the port. Docking allows for fixed infrastructure and mobile equipment, for example, cranes and derricks, port conveyor systems, port forklifts, forklift trucks, and other gear used for the cargo loading and unloading operations.
Berths
A berth is an allotted space at a dock or a wharf where a ship can dock or anchor, typi- cally designed alongside quays or jetties. Berths are classified according to the ship and cargo type they handle (e.g., tanker berth) and also according to their design and size (e.g., deepwater berth). Ships’ berthing arrangements are subject to the berth’s availabil- ity and suitability, that is, based on ship’s size, type, and requirements for cargo handling shore facilities.
A terminal’s characteristics that affect layout and performance include topology char- acteristics; dock and berth construction on coastline, that is, how linear and sheltered it is; berthing capacity and ability for simultaneous cargo operations; cargo handling capacity; cargo handling equipment; land filling and availability for additional storage of cargo and equipment; warehousing availability; and intermodal connectivity (Maine DOT 2007).
A key concern on behalf of the port authorities pertains to the time restrictions and the berth usage, in a manner that an optimum berth occupancy ratio is achieved, with eliminated waiting time prior to berthing. From a ship’s perspective, time lost is the accu- mulated waiting time including waiting time for pilot, for tugs, and for berth. Once the ship berths, additional time may be lost while waiting for the cargo or the ashore cargo handling equipment. Process and technology-based improvements are intended to maxi- mize berth occupancy, while minimizing dwell time for ships and turnaround times for the entire multimodal transportation process.
Berth designs have been developed over time in order to increase safety and efficiency, while reducing vessel operation time. As global trade grows, berths need to accommodate more and larger vessels, and this imposes significant pressure to keep abreast with the technological and operational standards. The strength of the supporting wharves must be increased in order to accommodate faster dockside cranes with better antisway load con- trol. The ship-to-shore connectivity must be ensured as container vessels become larger and wider. In the traditional berths, dockside container cranes will need to extend their workable outreach by longer boom designs. On the other hand, indented berths allow for two to nine ship-to-shore gantry cranes (quay cranes) to simultaneously load and unload containers from both sides of the vessel.
Figure 4.8a–d demonstrate modern port berths and cargo handling equipment, as analyzed in this section.
Deepwater Berths
As their name suggests, these are the deepest berths presently available to accommodate the largest ships’ size. In view of the new post-Panamax generation ships, modern ports prioritize investments and work on improving the technical capacity and commercial aspects of the harbors, in order to attract contracts for the largest ships:
Tankers:
• Ultra large crude carriers with an LOA of 415 m (1361.55 ft) and a draft of 35 m (114.82 ft)
• Very large crude carriers with an LOA of 330 m (1082.68 ft) and a draft of 28 m (91.86 ft)
Containers:
• New generation: Maersk Triple E-Class container ships, with an LOA of 400 m, that is, almost a quarter of a mile long, a draft of 14.5 m (48 ft), and a carrying capacity of 18,000 TEUs
• Post-Panamax containers with an LOA of 366 m (1200 ft), a draft of 15.2 m (49.9 ft), and a carrying capacity of over 12,000 TEUs
To accommodate these larger ship sizes, global ports invest in deepwater berths. For example, the Port of Southampton, UK, has a 500 m long capacity berth, a deepwater quay area of 1.87 km, with 16 m depth alongside and 16 quayside gantry cranes with super post-Panamax capacity (DP World Southampton 2013).
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 4.8 Terminals, berths, piers, and cargo handling equipment. (a) Carmel Terminal. Port of Haifa, Israel (2013). (b) An oil terminal on the right side. Haifa’s his- toric Crying Pier on the left.
National trade agreements and the potential of concluding large-scale contracts are another reason that nations and ports develop deepwater berth investment plans. Vale of Brazil, the world’s leading iron ore producer and mining corporation, has invested bil- lions of dollars to construct an unrivaled fleet of very large ore carriers to carry their steel making commodity to China and other global clients (China Shipowners’ Association 2011; Reuters 2011; Bloomberg Businessweek 2012; Vale 2013). Since Chinese ports are not ready to accommodate this large-scale fleet traffic, it is committed to building 440 deepwater berths by 2015. These examples demonstrate how fast the maritime industry reflects the global trade patterns and logistics requirements.
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 4.8 (Continued) (c) Twin Spreaders, handling 20 TEU containers. Carmel Terminal, Port of Haifa. (d) Grain uploader, Dagon Terminal, Port of Haifa. (Courtesy of the Haifa Port Authorities, Israel.)
Designated berths per ship type
a. Container berths: Containerization and the opportunity for fast and efficient transshipment resolved many of the problems that break-bulk shipping entailed, and made intermodal and multimodal transportation possible. A container termi- nal’s designs include the traditional one-sided marginal berths and the indented berths. Modern container ports have large-capacity container yards, or a storage area alongside the quay, to stack container boxes. Accessibility and hinterland connectivity are important, that is, the existence of on-dock or near-dock rail yard facilities.
Furthermore, cargo handling equipment should be carefully selected to match their expected volume of cargoes: mobile harbor cranes, ship-to-shore container cranes, straddle carriers, dockyard cranes, fixed and rail mounted cargo cranes, rail mounted stacking cranes, rubber tire gantry cranes, crawler cranes, and so on.
The cargo handling equipment’s technical specifications and cargo carrying capacity (measured in tonnage, i.e., metric tons [MT]) should cover and, if pos- sible, exceed their clients’ required services. Cranes can be particularly designed to a single container box size (i.e., 20 TEUs or 40 TEUs).
b. Wet and dry bulk terminals are frequently related to the cargo side of business, that is, oil majors and commodity key players. In the cases where third-party private operators can enter this market, their earnings equally derive from stor- age and land space charges, and cargo handling. On the other hand, container terminals’ earnings are not as affected by cargo handling. It is also worth noting that national trade agreements mostly affect raw material and energy sources;
hence it is the wet and dry bulk terminals that are mostly affected.
India is an example where increasing volumes of coal and various other com- modity imports are powered by the government’s investment of over $11 billion, in the development of 50 new seaports by 2015 (Port Strategy 2009).
Dry bulk terminals specialize in handling bulk products, like minerals, grains, woodchip, cottonseed, clinker, coal, cement, and so on. Automation and effi- cient use of technology enable direct transshipment and logistics agility. Products arrive at the port by sea, rail, or trucks, and are discharged from hopper cars at the terminals’ purpose-designed discharge stations, which are linked with rail- way tracks. Depending on the cargoes, ships are loaded by employing excava- tors and conveyor belts or pipelines, mobile cranes, vessel loaders, bucket wheel dischargers, loading spouts, grabs, and so on. Conveyor systems are utilized to directly move the freight from a regional industrial zone or silo to the ship. Silos and storage facilities are usually found alongside the berth and have modern conveyor systems transfer the commodities to the storage areas or to the ships.
Improved storage facilities require large, automated warehouses and the capac- ity to separate different cargo types. Dry bulk berths seek to improve operating efficiency and loading volume capacity by reducing loading times, thus meeting the industry’s goals.
Vessels are loaded using either excavators and conveyor belts or pipelines. The equipment used for loading or unloading cargo onto or from the vessel depends on the characteristics of both the vessel and the cargo. Ships typically have their own cranes, while ports also have their own mobile cranes to accommodate their clients.
c. Tanker berths for crude and refined oil—bulk oil jetties: With growing mar- ket expectations, the efficient terminal management and operations are criti- cal for liquid bulk terminals. Berths for crude oil tanker ships are typically located alongside the refinery’s maritime terminal. Typically, the crude oil cargo is unloaded via pipelines to storage tanks in the refinery. The shipping terminal usually has berths to load refined oil products. Refined products are ready to be distributed locally and overseas, mostly by sea transport (Chevron 2013).
Liquid shipments are loaded alongside a terminal by means of pipelines, pumps, and hoses. Since time efficiency is crucial, the industry strives for high loading and unloading rates through pumping ability and pipelines’ size. Once the tanker is ready and all required terminal and tanker valves in the loading system are open, the loading operations begin. Shipowners and cargo owners are occupied with ships’ overall performance and limited port stay. In tanker ships, this is measured in terms of their pumping capacity and loading/unloading performance. Detailed logs of the cargo operations and pumping capacity should include pump discharge, suction pressures, and RPM rates, which will help the shipowners in providing evidence for their vessels’ performance and efficiency.
The tanker vessels’ stability and stress factors will determine the tanks’ load- ing or unloading sequence. Typically, loading commences at a slower rate, which gradually increases to the highest levels. Technology enables the vessels’ remote checking of performance and temperature conditions throughout loading and unloading operations. Monitoring and controlling of the loading and unloading rates, with frequent ullage measurements, are logged in the deck log book at least every hour (UK PANDI 2003).
d. Product cargoes, LNG/LPG berths: These handle oil and gas-related products, usually in liquid form. Vessels are loaded via loading arms containing the pipe- lines. Storage facilities for the products are usually some distance away from the berth and connected by several pipes to ensure fast loading.
e. Chemicals and fertilizers’ berths: Specialized terminals are designated for the carriage of chemical products and fertilizers such as phosphate, urea, and so on. Terminals are typically designed with designated areas for storage and operations.
For chemical facilities located in the port’s vicinity, direct handling is achieved in accordance with the factory-ship plan. Contemporary ports are equipped with technological solutions that handle chemicals and fertilizers. To reduce spill- age, completely closed conveyor systems and large storage sheds are used for transporting chemicals and fertilizers through the port. In addition, specialized wastewater management systems are built. Dedicated terminals, berths, and warehouses are connected to railway and designated tank trailers for road net- work systems.
f. Cruise ship berths: These berths and terminals are designed to fit the require- ments of the tourist industry. In addition to increased safety compliance, cruise terminals are designed in a manner of luxury and convenience focused on (a) ter- minal’s accessibility from nearby parking, bus stops, and passenger drop-off areas; (b) efficient passengers’ boarding through boardway bridges and gangway and jet-way systems; (c) protection from weather, through, for example, covered walkways; and (d) spacious terminal and superstructures for passenger reception
and baggage handling spaces, provisions, and warehouse areas. The entire termi- nal area should be designed in a manner that comfortably accommodates thou- sands of passengers for the large cruise ships.
Floating docks offer a consistent level for cruise ship passengers as they embark and disembark ships, providing added safety. Floating docks are designed in a manner that provides increased marine security, and special designs are featured in areas of large tidal fluctuations. Other docks are designed to include bus staging, pedestrian covered floats, passenger boarding systems, and pedestrial/
vehicu lar transfer bridges (PND Engineers 2013).
g. Ro-Ro berths are designed either (a) for passenger/Ro-Ro carriers, which com- bine the luxury and safety features of a cruise terminal, or (b) as parts of des- ignated car carrier terminals, which are typically leased by car manufacturers and are especially designed to fit a large capacity of cars, without the passengers’
extra requirements.
Typically, Ro-Ro berths feature spacious car park areas in their vicinity, enabling the grouping and storing of freight before distribution. Technology should allow simultaneous, independent loading of two or more decks of large car parks, or side-loaders for loading lorries on the upper car decks.
Pontoon technology makes it possible to load or unload three ships at the same time on the same terminal. Both sides of the pontoon are ballasted inde- pendently by high-capacity pumps using seawater, for stability reasons, allowing for different-sized vessels to be handled quickly and efficiently.
h. Lay-up berths or layberths: A berth used for idle (lay-up status) vessels. A berth where no loading or unloading takes place. Lay berth and lay-by berth (below) may be used somewhat interchangeably for intermediate (two- to seven-day) periods. One factor to consider is the mooring arrangements offered, which usually relate to the size of the lay-up area. In a very large open space, such as found in Southeast Asia, vessels can be parked far apart and allowed to weathervane around their anchors. In smaller bays, as found in Europe, ships are usually nested together and held fast in special mooring arrangements.
Ships are also sometimes packed side by side along the coast. Lay-up strate- gies are generally described as hot, warm, or cold, depending on the period of repose involved—a hot lay-up can be likened. In a “hot” lay-up, the entire crew is kept on board and the machinery is kept running—the ship is, basically, parked in anticipation that it will get work soon. Ships are generally kept in this state for a period of one to six months, although extensions of up to a year are not unknown. It is reported that maintaining the hot lay-up condition can require up to 70% of the ship’s normal running costs. A “warm” lay-up takes the sleep a little deeper, typically lasting six months to a year, although exten- sions of up to three years are not unknown. In the warm lay-up state, there is a skeleton crew on board, with some systems deactivated but still a fair amount of maintenance activity. Users report that this level of dormancy costs up to 40% of the vessel’s running costs. A “cold” lay-up generally means inactivity for up to five years. The normal crew is dismissed and replaced by a crew of watchmen or engineers, whose job is to do only maintenance work necessary to forestall deterioration of the hull structure and machinery as long as possible (Burns-Kokkinaki, ABS 2009).