Chapter 4: NEMS Mass Spectrometry and Inertial Imaging
4.10 Bibliography
1. Potts, P.J., et al., Microanalytical Methods in Mineralogy and GeochemistryInductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometric analysis of geological samples: A critical evaluation based on case studies. Chemical Geology, 1990. 83(1): p. 105-118.
2. Cohen, A.S. and F.G. Waters, Separation of osmium from geological materials by solvent extraction for analysis by thermal ionisation mass spectrometry. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1996. 332(2–3): p. 269-275.
3. Eggins, S.M., et al., A simple method for the precise determination of ≥ 40 trace elements in geological samples by ICPMS using enriched isotope internal standardisation. Chemical Geology, 1997. 134(4): p. 311-326.
4. Longbottom, J.E., et al., Determination of Trace-Elements in Water by Inductively-Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry - Collaborative Study.
Journal of Aoac International, 1994. 77(4): p. 1004-1023.
5. Garbarino, J.R., Methods of analysis by the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory; determination of dissolved arsenic, boron, lithium, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, in Open-File Report. 1999.
6. Hirsch, R., et al., Determination of antibiotics in different water compartments via liquid chromatography–electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A, 1998. 815(2): p. 213-223.
7. Nakahara, Y., et al., Hair Analysis for Drug Abuse: I. Determination of Methamphetamine and Amphetamine in Hair by Stable Isotope Dilution Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Method.
8. Dams, R., et al., Urine drug testing for opioids, cocaine, and metabolites by direct injection liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 2003. 17(14): p. 1665-1670.
9. Øiestad, E.L., U. Johansen, and A.S. Christophersen, Drug Screening of Preserved Oral Fluid by Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Clinical Chemistry, 2007. 53(2): p. 300-309.
10. Aebersold, R. and M. Mann, Mass spectrometry-based proteomics. Nature, 2003. 422(6928): p. 198-207.
11. Ong, S.-E. and M. Mann, Mass spectrometry-based proteomics turns quantitative. Nat Chem Biol, 2005. 1(5): p. 252-262.
12. Bantscheff, M., et al., Quantitative mass spectrometry in proteomics: a critical review. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 2007. 389(4): p.
1017-1031.
13. Sage, E., et al., Neutral particle mass spectrometry with nanomechanical systems. Nat Commun, 2015. 6.
14. Hanay, M.S., et al., Single-protein nanomechanical mass spectrometry in real time. Nat Nano, 2012. 7(9): p. 602-608.
15. Glish, G.L. and R.W. Vachet, The basics of mass spectrometry in the twenty- first century. Nat Rev Drug Discov, 2003. 2(2): p. 140-150.
16. Loo, J.A., Studying noncovalent protein complexes by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Mass Spectrom Rev, 1997. 16(1): p. 1-23.
17. Fenn, J., et al., Electrospray ionization for mass spectrometry of large biomolecules. Science, 1989. 246(4926): p. 64-71.
18. Cameron, A.E. and D.F. Eggers, An Ion "Velocitron". Review of Scientific Instruments, 1948. 19(9): p. 605-607.
19. Cotter, R.J., Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry, in Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. 1993, American Chemical Society. p. 16-48.
20. Lifshitz, R. and M.C. Cross, Nonlinear Dynamics of Nanomechanical and Micromechanical Resonators, in Reviews of Nonlinear Dynamics and Complexity. 2009, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. p. 1-52.
21. Naik, A.K., et al., Towards single-molecule nanomechanical mass spectrometry. Nat Nano, 2009. 4(7): p. 445-450.
22. Hanay, M.S., Towards Single-Molecule Nanomechanical Mass Spectrometry. 2011, California Institute of Technology.
23. Matheny, M.H., et al., Phase Synchronization of Two Anharmonic Nanomechanical Oscillators. Physical Review Letters, 2014. 112(1): p.
014101.
24. Deegan, R.D., et al., Capillary flow as the cause of ring stains from dried liquid drops. Nature, 1997. 389(6653): p. 827-829.
25. Tanaka, K., et al., Protein and polymer analyses up to m/z 100 000 by laser ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 1988. 2(8): p. 151-153.
26. McLean, J.A., K.A. Stumpo, and D.H. Russell, Size-Selected (2−10 nm) Gold Nanoparticles for Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization of Peptides. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2005. 127(15): p. 5304- 5305.
27. Kerschen, G., Modal Analysis of Nonlinear Mechanical Systems. 2014:
Springer Vienna.
28. Holzweissig, F., A. W. Leissa, Vibration of Plates. (Nasa Sp-160). VII + 353 S. m. Fig. Washington 1969. Office of Technology Utilization National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Preis brosch. $ 3.50. ZAMM - Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics / Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, 1971. 51(3): p. 243-243.
29. Davidovikj, D., et al., Visualizing the Motion of Graphene Nanodrums. Nano Letters, 2016. 16(4): p. 2768-2773.
C h a p t e r 5
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
This chapter concludes the thesis by summarizing the findings from each of the three applications of nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS): NEMS switches, in-situ measurement of material properties in a nano-device, and NEMS mass spectrometry (NEMS-MS) and NEMS inertial imaging (NEMS-II). A futuristic outlook of these technologies developed is described.
5.1 Summary
In this thesis, we discussed three novel applications of NEMS. We started with a discussion of what NEMS and MEMS are and many applications emerging with relevance to our everyday lives. We also described the history and challenges in miniaturizing transistors and introduced mass spectrometry and its applications to various fields of science and engineering.
For our first application of NEMS, we discussed NEMS switches and their advantages. We described two different geometries – doubly-clamped beams and cantilevers – for NEMS switches as well as different performance metrics for an ideal switch. We discussed various common materials used for NEMS switches and showed that graphene is an interesting material for this application. We described fabrication processes for our graphene NEMS switches and demonstrated unprecedented switching results. We continued
with the optimization of the transfer of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) graphene, which allows for their large-scale production, and showed the improvement to the device from the optimizing. Lastly we discussed using aluminum nitride (AlN) as another material for NEMS switches because of its unique ability for piezoelectric actuation.
In our second application, we described a new method of using the anharmonic nonlinearity of NEMS resonators to determine in-situ the stress and speed of sound in a material. Compared to previous methods, this new method considers the effects of stress on the mode shape, which affects the measured speed of sound and stress. It also allows for an accurate measurement to be performed even if the device is not in the tension-dominating regime or unstressed regime. We tested the method by fabricating silicon doubly-clamped beams along different crystallographic orientations, which resulted in different speeds of sound for the family of devices. We verified this method by experimentally measuring the speeds of sound of the various silicon beams.
In our third application of NEMS, we discussed the use of NEMS for 2D mass spectrometry and inertial imaging, which permits determination of higher mass moments such as variance and skewness in the spatial mass distribution. We used AlN circular and square plate resonators and deposited gold nanoparticles (GNP) using two different deposition techniques, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) and laser- induced acoustic desorption (LIAD). We presented our preliminary data, but showed that the results were not clearly due to the deposition of the GNP. We also investigated the deviations of measured mode shape from the theoretical mode shape, a critical piece of information that
is needed for NEMS-MS and NEMS-II analyses. We hypothesized potential causes for these deviations, but so far our tests showed that the deviations do not appear to originate from actuation method, actuation power, laser detection power, or anisotropic stress, nor do they appear to be controllable by methods of intrinsic-stress reduction.
5.2 Perspectives and Future Topics
In the final section of this thesis, we propose the following interesting research topics based on the experiments we performed.
While graphene has unique properties, making it an interesting candidate for NEMS switches, its single atomic layer characteristic makes them prone to damage, as shown in our prototype devices failing after fewer than 20 cycles. AlN and other materials may be better suited for the actual switch, and draping graphene over much more robust switches may create more optimal contacts and reduce friction. These factors could ultimately greatly increase the life expectancy of the mechanical switch.
From our experimental work with MALDI- and LIAD-based NEMS-MS and NEMS-II, more work is still needed before this approach can be used reliably. In particular, with both LIAD and MALDI, each laser pulse appeared to induce adsorption of both the analyte as well as a uniform coating of spurious fine particles to the device. This must be stringently controlled, given the huge area differences involved between the analyte contact area and the total active area of the NEMS sensor. Unlike a constant background which can be subtracted away, in this pulsatory approach to NEMS-MS and NEMS-II this spurious