Although the role will evolve according to unique regional issues, there are commonalities, such as the universal need for cost- effective quality healthcare. APRNs/APNs can meet the need, and support for APRNs/APNs will happen through the development and maintenance of policies that provide for APRN/APN education, practice, and research frameworks.
diseases (NCDs), while still struggling with significant communicable di- sease (Anjana et al., 2011 ). Although NCDs are the primary cause of mor- bidity and mortality globally, the rise in outbreaks of infectious disease is another concern. The 2014 Ebola outbreak and the 2016 declaration of Zika as an international public health emergency by the WHO are only two recent examples of how infectious disease can grip the world, create a destructive path, and challenge healthcare systems (Ordway & Sokol, 2016 ).
Another predicted trend is the potential shortage of healthcare workers, estimated at 18 million by 2030, of which half will be registered nurses (ICN, 2017). In 2006, the WHO issued the The World Health Report 2006 — Working Together for Health (WHO, 2006), which was devoted to an assessment of the global health workforce in order to offer solutions. The report discussed recruitment, education, pay, resources, worker input, lifelong learning, and technology. The report also discussed the problems of migration of healthcare workers and the importance of balancing choice of individuals to pursue work as needed against the backdrop of healthcare need, putting retention strategies in place, and working with wealthier countries to adopt responsible recruitment. This last issue is a particular responsibility of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, as they are the pri- mary recipients of medical migration workers (Zackowitz, 2014 ). To assist with this issue, O’Brien and Gostin ( 2011 ) recommend the following:
• Address the health worker shortage in the United States
• Develop a plan to address the global health worker shortage
• Provide global leadership in addressing the global health worker shortage
• Reform United States– global health assistance programs in partner countries
• Increase financial assistance for global workforce capacity development
• Increase the number of health workers being trained in the United States
• Empower an appropriate agency to regulate recruiters of foreign- trained health workers (pp. 4– 7)
Nichols, Davis, and Richardson ( 2011 ), in the the Institute of Medicine’s (IOM’s) The Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health, reiterate many of these same points:
• Promote targeted educational investment in foreign- educated nurses in the U.S. nursing force
• Promote baccalaureate education for entry into practice in the United States
• Harmonize nursing curricula
• Add global health as a subject matter to undergraduate and graduate nursing curricula
• Establish a national system that monitors and tracks the inflow of foreign nurses, their countries of origin, the settings in which they work, and their education and licensure
• Create an international body to coordinate and recommend national and international workforce policies
In 2000, world leaders from 189 countries met at the United Nations ( 2018 ) and agreed on eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), listed in Table 6.1 (United Nations, 2018). The MDGs specified multiple measur- able targets aimed at solving the most demanding problems of the time.
Significant progress has been made toward goal achievement, particularly poverty reduction, improved access to water, reduction in infectious di- sease, reduction in disparities of education, and increased participation of women in policy. However, not all goals were fully met. In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development met in Rio de Janeiro to create new goals, sustainable development goals (SDGs). After exten- sive involvement with stakeholders, the United Nations General Assembly Working Group proposed 17 new goals for global development from 2015 to 2030. These goals are listed in Table 6.2 (United Nations, 2018), and mea- surable targets can be accessed at www.sdgfund.org/mdgs- sdgs .
Agencies Involved in the Global APRN/APN Experience
The ICN has been guiding global nursing since 1899 with a mission “to rep- resent nursing worldwide, advancing the profession and influencing health policy” (ICN NP/APNN, 2018, para. 1). In 2000, the ICN and the American Association of Nurse Practitioners (AANP; formerly the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners) created the NP/APNN. This network is considered a primary global resource for APRNs/APNs and those interested in advan- cing the role (AANP, 2018). The organization is composed of a core steering committee and multiple subgroups, monitors global trends in advanced practice, and disseminates information about advanced practice nursing (AANP, 2018). Membership is free and can be accessed at the network web- site, at www.icn- apnetwork.org .
Other nursing organizations known for supporting nursing around the world are Sigma Theta Tau International (STTI), and the National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties (NONPF). Currently, STTI is working with world health leaders on the Global Advisory Panel on the Future of Nursing (GAPFON), which has been tasked to create a global
TABLE 6.1 Millennium Development Goals 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women 4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases 7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
Source : United Nations. (2018). From MDGs to SDGs. Retrieved from http://www.sdgfund.org/
mdgs-sdgs
nursing voice that will improve global health. STTI (2014) has been sup- portive to APRNs/APNs through grants, support of research initiatives, continuing education, conferences, and numerous publications. AANP and NONPF have assisted APRNs/APNs through leadership on practice, policy, and education. The WHO has also worked on nursing issues such as education, governance, retention, and migration of nurses, but has not been as involved with advanced nursing.
Several organizations have influenced the standards of APRN/APN practice and education in the United States. Although nations choose to self- determine if or how the APRN/APN role develops, many use the same documents. Table 6.3 provides a partial listing of influential documents.
Certification organizations are beginning to examine educational programs and to certify some APRNs/APNs who attend schools outside the United States. Given the variability of roles and education of inter- national APRNs/APNs, there is little migration of APRNs/APNs across borders. Currently, the CGFNS is working on an APRN/APN education comparability tool to address the underlying issues. At some point, the pro- cess of accrediting APRN/APN schools outside the United States may be- come desirable.
TABLE 6.2 Sustainable Development Goals 1. End poverty in all forms everywhere.
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well- being for all at all ages.
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.
8. Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.
15. Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.
Source : United Nations. (2018). From MDGs to SDGs. Retrieved from http://www.sdgfund.org/
mdgs-sdgs
Preparing the APRN/APN for Global Experiences
International advanced practice nursing partnerships have become a popular method of exchanging nursing knowledge in that they provide a forum for access to international practice experiences and a forum for research in inter- national healthcare issues. In today’s global healthcare environment, APRNs/
APNs educated in global health are prepared to network with international multidisciplinary healthcare providers to develop and deliver quality care.
These partnerships have included long- term work assignments and med- ical brigades (previously called "missions") of varied lengths, most with the TABLE 6.3 Documents With Potential International Influence
American Association of Nurse Practitioners
• Clinical Outcomes: The Yardstick of Educational Effectiveness
• Nurse Practitioner Cost- Effectiveness
• Nurse Practitioner Curriculum
• Quality of Nurse Practitioner Practice
• Scope of Practice for Nurse Practitioners
• Standards of Practice for Nurse Practitioners American Association of Colleges of
Nursing
• The Essentials of Baccalaureate Education for Professional Nursing Practice (2008)
• The Essentials of Doctoral Education for Advanced Nursing Practice (2006)
• The Essentials of Master’s Education in Nursing (2011)
NONPF • Multiple examples of competencies for nurse
practitioners available on the NONPF website. Intended for entry into practice, the competencies are numerous, population- specific, and separately include those for both master’s and doctoral levels.
American College of Nurse- Midwives • Certified Midwifery and Nurse- Midwifery Education and Certification
• Competencies for Master’s Level Midwifery Education
• Degree Requirements for Midwifery Faculty
• Midwifery Education and DNP
• The Practice Doctorate in Midwifery American Association of Nurse
Anesthetists
• Scope of Nurse Anesthesia Practice (2013)
• Standards of Nurse Anesthesia Practice (2013)
• Quality of Care in Anesthesia (2009) National Association of Clinical Nurse
Specialists
• Clinical Nurse Specialist Core Competencies (2010)
• Position Statement on the Importance of the CNS Role in Care Coordination (2013)
• Revised CNS Core Competencies (2017)
CNS, clinical nurse specialist; DNP, doctor of nursing practice; NONPF, National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties.
goal of developing sustainable healthcare access. How this goal is carried out depends on the needs and plans of the supporting partners and may vary by time of year, current needs of the partner, and the political climate.
Aside from international experiences that occur in the United States, many healthcare providers are willing to volunteer on both short- and long- term undertakings outside the United States. World disasters like the 2010 Haiti earthquake that created catastrophic damage have prompted the need for increasing emergency medical relief and continuing sustainable medical work. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have teams that arrive regularly to provide sustainable help for this nation.
Ethics and Responsibilities: Approach to Care
Any international experience should involve the development of appro- priate ethical and cultural approaches by those involved in healthcare de- livery. Ethical practice involves respectfully approaching those in need, treating them fairly and equitably, and thoughtfully approaching human rights (Hunter & Crabtree, 2010 ). A culturally competent health system is
“one that acknowledges and incorporates— at all levels— the importance of culture, assessment of cross- cultural relations, vigilance towards dynamics that result from cultural differences, expansion of cultural knowledge, and adaptation of services to meet culturally unique needs” (Batancourt, Green, Carrillo, & Owusu, 2003 , p. 294). Chase and Hunter ( 2002 ) describe "cultural competence” as a skill that can be learned and emphasize that the APRN/
APN should be not only culturally competent but culturally responsive, defining that as someone capable of relating in an ethnorelativistic, not ethnocentric, fashion. With an ethnorelativistic approach, the APRN/
APN provides care centered on the values and perspectives of the patient and the community. Resources to educate and assess those skills can be obtained through the National Center for Cultural Competence ( n.d. ), ac- cessible at https://nccc.georgetown.edu . The Center also emphasizes that the APRN/APN be not only culturally competent, but culturally respon- sive, providing care centered on the values and perspectives of the patient and the community.
A related issue pertains to the ethics and cultural sensitivity sur- rounding the level of participation in global experiences— short term (1 day to 1 month) versus long term (1 month to 2 years) versus perma- nent (2 years or more). APRNs/APNs have participated at all levels. The controversy stems from concerns that any effort without proven benefits to the patient or community is not ethical. Although patients who receive corrective lenses, are cured of an infection, or have a completely decayed tooth pulled may value the intervention, some want the measure of value to be based on level of sustainability. Martiniuk, Manouchehrian, Negin, and Zwi ( 2012 ) cited that benefits of short- and long- term medical brigades included transferring medical knowledge, helping communities convey their plight, and giving communities hope that problems might be solved.
Negatives included problems of sustainability (unless that was specifically
countered), limited relations with nearby healthcare systems, and lack of data analysis. The authors recommended the following to optimize global efforts: cross- cultural dialogue and efforts, determined efforts toward ef- ficacy, transparency, and coordination with existing organizational pro- gramming. These are clear messages to any APRN/APN considering such work or evaluating a program before joining.
Fulbright Programs
One organization with a long history of providing high- quality oppor- tunities for international experiences for APRNs/APNs is the Fulbright Program (U.S. Department of State [USDS], 2018). The Fulbright Program offers U.S. nursing professionals, educators, and scholars the opportunity to study, teach, and/or conduct research abroad through the Fulbright Scholar Program and the Fulbright Specialist Program. These are compet- itive programs that are open to most academic disciplines. The Fulbright initiative was spearheaded by Senator William J. Fulbright as a way to pro- mote peace and mutual understanding at the close of World War II. Funding began in 1946, and now its programs are active in more than 155 countries.
The Fulbright Scholar Program publishes the grant opportunities each spring with an application deadline of August 1. Many grant applications require a letter of invitation, so it is helpful to review the online catalog early, speak with the Fulbright staff about the grant specifics, and com- municate with the host institution about obtaining an invitation letter. The Scholar Program funds travel and a generous living stipend. These grants may be for teaching, research, or a teaching– research combination, and the time commitment (3– 12 months) is specified in the grant opportunity. In contrast, the Fulbright Specialist Program offers an opportunity for experi- enced professionals and academics to collaborate on projects defined by the host institution for 2 to 6 weeks. Travel and in- country costs are covered.
However, the Fulbright Specialist Program does not fund activities, such as direct patient care requiring a license. See www.eca.state.gov/fulbright/
about- fulbright for more details on the Fulbright programs.
Healthcare Medical Brigades
Emerging healthcare needs, such as Ebola, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) require global part- ners working together to develop strategies to treat and prevent the spread of these diseases. The term "healthcare” is used to designate an interdisciplinary approach to deliver care internationally. An interdisciplinary team of health- care individuals is needed to improve overall healthcare. A well- rounded team is composed of physicians, nurses, APRNs/APNs, dentists, health educators, nutritionists, social workers, pharmacists, physical therapists, oc- cupational therapists, counselors, and students from all disciplines.
Countries such as the United States, Canada, Switzerland, Germany, England, and Australia have large numbers of NGOs and universities that
send out healthcare teams regularly for the purposes of providing direct patient care, supervised experiences for students, and opportunities to network on research and education. Table 6.4 lists volunteer international healthcare websites and information to assist in planning a medical brigade.
Pretravel Preparations
Pretravel preparation should begin at least a year in advance. In pre- paring for a trip, the team leader should review online information about the host country/sponsor, especially data related to finances and bringing medications and supplies. If the brigade is outside the United States, the State Department warnings specific to the country should be reviewed.
Networking and developing a relationship with the host country/
sponsor may require an initial visit to determine the needs. Issues such as requirements of the host country/sponsor for current provider licenses, medications, and supplies that are approved by the country/sponsor should be determined early in the pretravel period. Transportation and lodging will also need to be worked out with the host. One country (Burundi) requires visa applications be submitted with a letter of invitation from the people with whom the volunteer is staying or documentation of hotel reservations.
There are a variety of ways team members may fund their trip expenses.
Some pay the total amount out of pocket. Others will rely on fund- raisers to support all or part of the team’s expenses. Some organizations do a one- third method, when the individual pays a third, the organization pays a third, and the last third is from donations or fund- raiser activities (Samaritans Now, 2014 ).
Funding needs to be discussed at one of the early team meetings—
finances can become a source of friction in the group. Airline tickets are the most costly budget item. Some airline companies will provide group rates and allow extra baggage for free. Some airlines request contact at least 60 days in advance of travel.
Team members frequently ask how much cash they should bring. In many cases, it depends on the economy of the host country. For example, costs in Thailand are higher than those in Guatemala. The exchange rates are also higher for larger bills. Many governments require crisp new bills for exchange.
Many countries (e.g., Ecuador, Guatemala) require preapproval for medications, and the expiration date on medications must be at least 6 months into the future. The preapproval requires listing expiration dates, names of the pharmaceutical companies that produced the medications, and quantities of the medications. All documents must be notarized.
Table 6.5 lists pharmaceutical organizations that will provide medications to healthcare teams. Table 6.6 provides recommended medications for International Medical Brigades. Some organizations require a physician’s signature. If ordering medications outside the United States (e.g., from Action Medeor in Germany), U.S. Customs and Border Protection will need to be contacted for a list of brokerage firms that will support bringing
TABLE 6.4 Volunteer International Websites/Information to Assist in Planning
U .S. State Department Travel Warnings and Consular Information Sheets — provides country- by- country information relevant to health, safety, visa, and entry requirements (travelers may be unable to board planes if they do not have the necessary visa), medical facilities, consular contact information, drug penalties, etc.; www.travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country.html
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Publications and Factbooks — includes among its sections World Factbook (provides a wealth of information on virtually all countries), Handbook of
International Economic Statistics , CIA Maps and Publications released to the public. www.cia.gov/cia/
publications ; www.cia.gov/redirects/ciaredirect.html
Center for Disease Control (CDC)— provides information for foreign travel and recommended immunizations. www.cdc.gov
Ford Foundation — is one of the largest U.S. foundations active in national and international health.
www.fordfound.org
Hesperian Foundation — publishes low- cost, practical books for use in all aspects of international health practice at the community level. www.hesperian.org
Library of Congress Country Studies — provides detailed information on many of the countries of the world prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. The site has an impressive search engine that can search across the database for any combination of words, ranks the hits in order of closeness to your search terms, and then provides links to the desired text. www.lcweb2.loc.
gov/frd/cs/cshome.html#toc , www.loc.gov/collections/country- studies/about- this- collection/#toc Teaching Aids at Low Cost — lists and distributes many health- related teaching aids that are provided in low- cost format and often in multiple languages for use by healthcare providers and patients in developing countries. www.talcuk.org or healthbooksinternational.org/
World Health Organization — www.who.int/topics/travel/en/
American Council for Voluntary International Action — is a consortium of more than 150 nonprofit organizations working worldwide in health, educational development, and other related fields. It is a source of jobs and volunteer resources. The site includes hotlinks to all of its members. www.interaction.org Doctors Without Borders USA — is the French- originated organization (Medecins Sans Frontieres) that sends fully qualified health professionals into some of the most challenging parts of the world.
Because they do not have job descriptions contracted for nurse practitioners, nurse practitioners function in the role of nurses. www.msf.org
FUNEDESIN — is a clinical rotation program that provides clinical experiences in the Amazon region of Ecuador. It is open to all levels of students and health professionals in the fields of medicine and nursing. Further information can be found on the website. ( www.orgs.tigweb.org/funedesin- foundation- for- integrated- education- and- development ). The application pack can be requested by emailing [email protected].
Global Health: Making Contacts — contains a gold mine of international health resources and projects, including job opportunities. It provides links with a long list of governmental and nongovernmental agencies and organizations, people, academic institutions, and organizational directories relevant to health. The sections are conveniently grouped according to major mission, affiliation, type, etc.; www.globalhealth.pitt.edu
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