Abigail Makuyana Shingirai Paul Mbulayi Introduction
Social work with refugees is increasingly becoming an important domain of practice in Zimbabwe and beyond. This is because refugees are often associated with a range of psychosocial and economic problems for which social workers have requisite competencies to handle. This chapter defines the notion of refugees, demonstrates its historical antecedence and discusses the legislative foundation of refugee protection in Zimbabwe, including the country’s committal to different international conventions and protocols. Furthermore, the chapter outlines some of the key factors responsible for attracting refugees into the country. The discussion then moves to elaborate on the general scope of social work services available to refugees before delving into a poignant discussion of the specific services offered to refugees in Zimbabwe. It then closes off with an analysis of the challenges associated with hosting refugees in Zimbabwe.
What is a Refugee?
A refugee is any person who flees his/her country because of well-founded fear of persecution based on his/her race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion and is unable and or unwilling to seek protection in his/her country of origin (Douglas, Cetron & Spiegel, 2019). The concept incorporates those people who voluntarily or involuntarily move from their natural homes to other countries or regions due to an assortment of factors including the need for
safety and protection or in search of better socio-economic opportunities (Rutinwa, 2017). There are different ways through which refugees are classified. Thakur (2016) identifies six different kinds of people who flee their natural abodes in search of protection elsewhere including refugees;
asylum seekers; Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs); stateless persons and returnees. The scholar describes asylum seekers as those claiming refugee status but has not been evaluated in the host country whilst Internally Displaces Persons (IDPs) have not crossed international borders, but have moved to different regions in their home country.
Thakur (2016) sees stateless persons as those without a recognised nationality; who cannot access basic services in any country whereas returned are persons returning from exile into their country.
Development of Refugee Protection Services in Zimbabwe Soon after independence in 1980, the post-liberation war government of Zimbabwe was confronted with an ever-growing burden of refugees coming mainly from warring Mozambique and the highly polarised South African which was still under the apartheid government. The newly established government of Zimbabwe felt morally compelled to welcome and provide protection to refugees from the region and beyond as a means of returning the favour granted to thousands of liberation war fighters and the general citizenry of the country that had been accommodated in neighbouring countries during the protracted struggle for freedom. The then flourishing economy of the country which was described by Julius Nyerere of Tanzania as the “Jewel of Africa” also acted as an attraction to hordes of refugees seeking to cash in on it.
Formal refugee protection services in Zimbabwe commenced three years after independence when the country moved to develop a requisite legislative framework. Chikanda and Crush (2016) note that before 1983 when the Refugee Act was enacted, refugees who came into the country were self-settling in local communities; with many of them taking up menial jobs as domestic workers, farm and mine labourers while others acquired portions of land and started practicing agriculture in communal areas. The introduction of the Refugee Act signalled the onset of formal regulation of refugee issues in Zimbabwe. Along with the other provisions, the Refugee Act enabled for the designation of a special office of the
Commissioner for Refugees which; among other things, is responsible for conferring refugee status and performing an oversight role in the establishment, maintenance, supervision of refugee protection services and infrastructures in the country. Additionally, the Act impugned self- settlements by refugees and entrenched the encampment model of refugee protection which underscored the establishment of rural refugee camps.
The Tongogara, Mazowe River Bridge, Nyamatikiti, Nyangombe and Chambuta refugee camps are some of the early outcomes of Refugee Act.
The country also moved to establish a referral refugee facility in Waterfalls, Harare known as the Waterfalls Transit Centre (WTC) which is responsible for accommodating newly arrived refugees who are either on their way to other destinations or to Tongogara Refugee Camp which is now the main centre in the country. Alongside the establishment of refugee camps, the Zimbabwean government also rolled out an extensive repatriation programme which assisted those who were willing to go back to their home countries at the cost of the state.
As the refugee protection system in Zimbabwe evolved, the country diversified from a strictly rural encampment model to include urban settlements. The urban settlement model entailed that refugees who could provide satisfactory reasons as to why they need to stay in urban areas are allowed to do so. Among some of the reasons considered compelling enough for urban settlement include the need for medical attention, employment or pursuance of an academic programme. Under the urban settlement option, refugees are given identity documents by the government and are released from assistance programmes.
The improved political climate in the SADC region, particularly in Mozambique which used to generate a lot of refugees who sought protection in Zimbabwe, has seen the number of refugees significantly going down from a peak of 175 000 in 1989 to 19 911 in 2019 (Chikanda, 2019). The declining number of refugees in the country has been attributed to the deteriorating social and economic situation which saw many refugees relocating to other countries such as South Africa and Botswana that have better performing economies. With dwindling economic fundamentals and significant reductions in the number of
refugees, Zimbabwe closed some of its refugee camps except for Tongogara Refugee Camp and the Waterfalls Transit Camp.
Whereas in the past, refugees who sought protection in Zimbabwe mainly came from Mozambique and later on South Africa, recent statistics are showing that the country is increasingly attracting expatriates from further afield including from countries such as Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Ethiopia and Somalia, among others. Currently, Zimbabwe is transitioning from the rural encampment and the urban settlement policies towards adopting the Graduation Approach which underscore the importance promoting sustainable livelihoods among refugees. Under the provisions of this approach, refugees are given the right to participate in economic activities and have greater freedom to move around in the country.
The Legislative Framework Guiding the Protection of Refugees in Zimbabwe
Indubitably, ensuring the welfare and protection of refugees is increasingly becoming an important function of social workers and a fiduciary responsibility of the Zimbabwean government and its allied development partners. This is because the country is a signatory to various regional and international protocols and conventions which provide for the protection of foreign nationals who flee from an assortment of dangers. Primarily, the protection of refugees in Zimbabwe is a given right which is provided in a number of international, regional and local conventions, legislations and policies to which the country has acceded.
Key among the refugee protection legal instruments in the country is the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its subsequent protocol which was ratified in 1967. This is in addition to the Organisation of African Union (now African Union) Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa which was established in 1969 and came into effect in 1974.
Despite having acceded to the 1951 and 1967 conventions, Zimbabwe registered reservations regarding several Articles of these conventions including Article 17 on wage earning employment for refugees; Article 23 on state sponsored public relief for refugees; Article 24 on social security
for refugees and Article 26 which provides refugees with freedom of movement (Govere, 2017). While international and regional instruments provide a framework of refugee protection, the day-to-day management of their issues in Zimbabwe is guided by the1983 Refugees Act [Chapter 4:03] which infuses the provisions of the 1951 and 1967 conventions into one domestic instrument. Additionally, refugee protection services are also premised on the dictates of the Immigration Act [Chapter 4:02] which;
among other things, establishes grounds for the awarding of refugee statuses. Zimbabwe’s refugee protection system is secondarily premised on the following legal conventions, statutes and instruments:
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
The 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The African Charter on the Welfare and Rights of Children
The Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons 1954
The Zimbabwean Immigration Act
The Zimbabwean Children’s Act
Constitution of Zimbabwe [Amendment No 20 Act of 2013]
Key Principles of International Refugee Protection
Fundamental to the process of international protection of refugees are the key principles of protection which include the right to admission for all asylum and refugee seekers which is underscored in Article 31 of the 1951 Convention (Govere, 2017). The principle bequeaths an express right to all persons to cross boarders in search of asylum. Additionally, Article 33 of the 1951 Convention underscores the principle of No-refoulement (non- return policy) which prohibits the expulsion of refugees back to countries from where they flee violence, persecution or disasters. International law also provides for the protection of refugees from arrest and detention unless such act is manifestly supported by law. There also continue to be diplomatic engagements on the need to ratify the principle of shared responsibility (Bauböck, 2018). Among other things, the Shared Responsibility principle entails the need for equitable sharing of the burden of hosting and supporting the world’s refugees, while taking account of existing contributions and differing capacities and resources among states (Bauböck, 2018).
Non-State Stakeholders in Zimbabwean Refugee Protection System
Refugee protection work in Zimbabwe is not solely a state responsibility as there are other key stakeholders; including global governance organisations and non-governmental organisations which play pivotal roles in financing and facilitating refugee protection work. Table below presents some of the non-state actors who contribute to refugee protection in Zimbabwe.
ORGANISATION SERVICES OFFERED
GOAL Zimbabwe Water, sanitation and livelihood activities
Terre-des Homes Health and Educational
programmes World Food Programme Food security
Jesuit Relief Services Pastoral and livelihood activities Jesuit Refugee Services Pastoral and skills training
programmes
Christian Care Relief and development programmes
International Committee of the Red Cross
Social Welfare, Health care, Family reunification programmes
Child-line Zimbabwe Child protection services United Nations High Commission
for Refugees (UNHCR)
Refugee protection activities Health care services
Education
Food security and nutrition programmes
Water and sanitation Shelter
Energy supply services
Community empowerment and self- reliance programmes
Table 4.1: Some of the stakeholders in refugee welfare in Zimbabwe
Pull Factors for Refugees in Zimbabwe
Ironically, amid many internal social and economic challenges, Zimbabwe has continued to be a lucrative destination for refugees. Statistics provided by Chikanda (2019) shows that as of January 2019, there were 19 911 persons of concern in Zimbabwe of which 13 367 were formally registered as refugees, asylum seekers and other persons of concern. With reference to Ravenstein’s (1889) “law of migration” which stipulates that migrants often move from places of lesser opportunities to those with higher levels of opportunities and economic circumstances, Ehrkamp (2017) writes that the preponderance of refugees in a particular country is always linked to some pull factors in such jurisdiction. Defined as the factors which attract people into a particular country or region; pull factors are premised on the perceived and actual benefits of being in a particular area or country (Morgan, Crooks, Sampson & Snyder, 2017).
Pull factors are always juxtaposed with push factors which are construed as those undesirable factors which drive people away from their natural homes or present locations. Explained in terms of the push and pull factors, migration is understood to be premised on four fundamental factors including those relating to geographical origin, geographical destination, intervening obstacles and personal factors. In this section we explore factors responsible for making Zimbabwe a lucrative refugee destination.
Humanitarian Protection
According to Lischer (2017) approximately, 5 to 10 percent migrants every year are persons seeking humanitarian protection owing to a multiplicity of factors. In this sense, any country, with a good record of graciously receiving and protecting refugees becomes lucrative to those in search of protection. In essence, a country’s stance as regards to the protection of refugees is demonstrated by its membership to international conventions and other treaties on humanitarian protection of refugees. This is further consolidated by a country’s commitment to crafting and enacting of domestic legislations which give legal effect to the protection of refugees (Long, 2013). Generally, Zimbabwe has a long running history of protecting refugees. The UNHCR (2013) writes that the asylum climate in Zimbabwe is positive with all those requiring protection being afforded
access and relevant procedures being followed. This accounts for the preponderance of asylum seekers in the country.
Religious Pluralism and Tolerance
One of the major push factors forcing people to move from their home countries or regions is religious persecution and oppression (Turkoglu &
Chadefaux, 2019). Hatch (2016) writes that historical migrations such as that of Pilgrims and Puritans who settled in Massachusetts, Roman Catholics in Maryland, Huguenots in the Hudson River Valley and South Carolina as well and Quakers in Pennsylvania were all propelled by the desire for religious freedom. In addition to a political and legislative climate that support humanitarian protection to those fleeing persecution and other forms of dangers which threaten their lives, Zimbabwe offers a lucrative religious environment underlain by the acceptance of religious pluralism and tolerance. This makes the country attractive to those fleeing from religious oppression.
Relative Peace and Security
Regional leaders in Africa have continued to reiterate the need to silence the gun in many parts of the continent, particularly in the horn of Africa where political, religious and ideological differences have been responsible for raging civil wars that have caused tremendous suffering for local populations (Bariagaber, 2016). This has caused the traction of many people, particularly women and children in search of protection elsewhere.
Among the major conflicts that have generated many refugees in Africa are political clashes in Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Mozambique (Bariagaber, 2016). Zimbabwe has been enjoying relatively stable peace and security and this has continued to be attractive to populations domiciled in conflict ravaged territories and regions. Adding to this positive and attractive outlook, Zimbabwe has a receptive and tolerant population and institutions which are friendly to expatriates (Johanne & Alex, 2017). While these factors are attracting refugees from around the world to Zimbabwe, the country’s strategic location which makes it a corridor through which inland populations from war torn territories access Southern Africa is also responsible for the high refugee activity in the country (Mhlanga & Zengeya, 2016). Additionally, the
proximity of the country to conflict afflicted Mozambique means that many refugees from that country flock to the nearby Tongogara Refugee Camp on humanitarian grounds.
Better Standard of Living
In recent years, migration patterns have largely been underlain by the need for better economic conditions and opportunities (Ehrkamp, 2017).
On realising the deficit of opportunities in their own societies, people who are domiciled in poor regions and territories skip their borders to become economic refugees elsewhere (Bauböck, 2018). The economic situation in Zimbabwe has not been very much inspiring to be able to attract economic refugees. Instead, the country has been generating and dispensing economic refugees into neighbouring countries and theworld at large (Chikanda, 2019). However, Govere (2017) notes that despite the current economic quagmire in Zimbabwe and the concomitant reservations to various articles of the 1951 convention on the protection of refugees, particularly the clauses which deal with employment and restrictions to freedom of movement, the country has continued to be lenient to asylum seekers. According to the UNHCR (2013) skilled asylum seekers continue to be given work permits and are allowed to move out of Tongogara Refugee Camp to settle in towns and other areas where they engage in various economic activities. This freedom provides an incentive for migrants to consider Zimbabwe as a preferential host country.
Nature of Services Available for Refugees in Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, the refugee protection sector provides a number of services which are designed to offer the best possible protection safeguarding the welfare and well-being of expatriates. The ensuing section provides an in- depth discussion of the key services provided by the Zimbabwe refugee protection system.
Shelter
As already indicated elsewhere in this chapter, Zimbabwe’s refugee protection system is largely informed by the encampment policy which entails that refugees are statutorily required to stay within a designated
facility. This requirement means that the Zimbabwean government and allied development partners are responsible for building and maintaining accommodation for refugees. However, evidence shows that accommodation is scarce at Tongogara Refugee Camp, with reports indicating that some refugees have been living in tents for unbelievably long periods while others have constructed their own makeshift mud houses.
Education
In sync with the country’s main ideology of empowerment through education, the Zimbabwean refugee protection system offers educational programmes designed tobenefit refugee children. The government of Zimbabwe built and is responsible for funding the operations of Tongogara Primary School and St. Michaels Secondary School at Tongogara Refugee Camp. The schools provide free educational services to refugees and their children. Additionally, refugees reportedly have access to tertiary education opportunities at Chipinge College of Horticulture which is located adjacent to Tongogara Refugee Camp. More so, indications are that Tongogara Refugee Camp also offers vocational training courses in upholstery, carpentry and cosmetology. According to Chikanda and Crush (2016), there are opportunities for individuals and families with free funds to enrol for university programmes outside the refugee facility. However, according to UNHCR (2013) despite the many educational opportunities available to refugees in Zimbabwe, there is a worrying trend of high school drop-outs due to circumstances of early marriages and teenage pregnancies.
Health
Zimbabwe also offers primary health care services to refugees. A clinic was constructed at Tongogara Refugee Camp where all refugees have free and easy access to good quality primary health care services. In line with the country’s medical referral system, complicated medical problems which cannot be handled by the clinic are referred to Chipinge and Mutare hospitals. However, there are reports that the health care services are affected by inter-alia shortage of medical supplies and lack of ambulances to ferry patients to referral hospitals.
Child protection
Refugee protection in Zimbabwe also includes the provision of child protection services. These services include identification of unaccompanied minors and separated children as well as facilitating their placement in alternative care and supervising these placements towards ensuring good quality care for refugee children. Child protection services in Zimbabwean refugee facilities also include availing of educational opportunities and the provision of supplementary nutrition. Mhlanga and Zengeya (2016) note that child protection services in Zimbabe also include tracking of the families of separated children and facilitating reunifications. Additionally, in the country’s refugee facilities, child protection services encompassing helping refugee children in acquiring requisite documentations such as birth certificates. However, there are some significant gaps in the nature and quality of child protection services offered to refugee children.
According to the UNHCR (2013), authorities mainly focus on structural child protection issues and thereby overlook some pertinent indicators such as high rates of school dropouts, child marriages, unplanned pregnancies among girls of school going ages, complaints about the quality of care in foster care, transactional sex involving children as well as child labour which points to challenges in care offerings in refugee facilities.
Psychosocial support
Refugee protection work in Zimbabwe also includes the provision of professional psychosocial support to help expatriates to cope with their changing life circumstances. Professionals such as social workers and psychologists are employed by the government and allied refugee protection development partners to provide counselling and other expert services to assist refugees with navigating their difficult situations.
However, indications are that there is serious shortage of psychosocial professionals to sustainably assist all refugees.
The Scope of Social Work Services in Refugee Settings
Social work with refugees is a relatively unfamiliar, but rapidly growing phenomenon around the world. Indications are that its emergence and growth were largely inspired by the need to respond to the psychosocial