DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-1461-0.ch002
ABSTRACT
The chapter has two main foci. The first focus is on the types of literacy practices needed by young people to work in a contemporary digital environment. Policies that impact on the development of digital literacy development are explored. The aspects underpinning digital literacy are examined and a sociocultural approach explained. Aspects of safety and ethics are focused on. The first half concludes by discussing digital games and ways these can be used to develop digital literacies in schools. The second focus is on the digital competencies that pre-service teachers can develop to support teaching of digital literacies.
Different models for developing digital competencies are outlined. The aspect of critical understand- ing is then examined. This is followed by exploring digital story telling. Important considerations for developing digital competencies within and beyond university training are examined. The chapter then provides some suggestions for further research in this field.
INTRODUCTION
The use of connected digital devices such as smart phones and computers as well as the online sites as- sociated with these devices is becoming almost ubiquitous in many developed countries. In the United States for example, the Pew Research Center reported that 95 per cent of teens aged 13-17 have a smart phone or access to one with 45 per cent stating they are online on a near constant basis (Anderson &
Jiang, 2018). The types of sites these teens visit include Youtube (85%), Instagram (72%) and Snapchat (69%) amongst others.
Pre-Service Teachers’
Digital Competencies to Support School Students’
Digital Literacies
Damian Maher
University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Pre-Service Teachers’ Digital Competencies to Support School Students’ Digital Literacies
Similarly in Australia, smartphone ownership for people aged between 12-24 years of age is 95 per cent (Statisca, 2019). Internet use by young Australians aged 15-17 years of age is 99 per cent (ABS, 2016). In households with children under 15, 97 per cent had access to the internet going online an aver- age of 18 hours each week (excluding school use) with access to an average of seven internet connected devices per household (ABS, 2016).
The figures indicate that young people are accessing a variety of web sites using their own devices or devices provided in the home in large numbers. Such a high percentage of use means that the way young people consume and produce information for both personal and educational uses is changing.
Such a change means that the ways they are supported to develop their digital literacies in schools is becoming increasingly important.
In examining the concept of digital literacy the first half of this chapter will investigate firstly, the nature of digital literacy. Policies of different countries in relation to digital practices for young people in schools are examined. This is followed by an examination of some practices in schools to develop school students’ digital literacy.
In order for young people to develop digital literacies which they can then build upon in the work- force, it is important that they are supported and taught accordingly in primary and high schools. The expertise of teachers is important in supporting this process. The second half of this chapter examines how digital competencies are being developed for pre-service teachers in universities. Whilst the terms digital literacy and digital competence are often used interchangeably, in this chapter these terms are used to denote different areas of education. The term digital literacy/literacies is used to refer to school education while the term digital competency is used to refer to teacher education.
DIGITAL LITERACY IN SCHOOLS
The definition as to what constitutes digital literacy is a contested area and there is no one set definition.
The terms used to describe this concept has changed over time as authors and researchers have sought to understand the field. ‘Computer literacy’ was the term used during the 1980s with ‘information literacy’
gaining popularity in the early 1990s (Bawden, 2008). Early use of the term digital literacy was used throughout the 1990s by a number of authors, who used it to refer to the ability to read and comprehend information items in the hypertext or multimedia formats which were at that time becoming available (Bawden, 2001).
As defined by Gilster (1997), the term digital literacy refers to the ability to understand and to use information from a variety of digital sources and includes the ability to read, write and otherwise deal with information using technologies. A definition of what constitutes digital literacy also includes
“knowing how to act safely and responsibly online” (Australian Government, cited in NSW Education Standards Authority, 2017, p. 7). Thus, digital literacy is about mastering ideas, not keystrokes where:
“Not only must you acquire the skill of finding things, you must also acquire the ability to use these things in your life” (Glistner, pp. 1–2).
The concept of digital literacy is therefore multifaceted. Bawden (2001) set out skills and competen- cies under the umbrella term ‘digital literacies’ which includes:
31 Pre-Service Teachers’ Digital Competencies to Support School Students’ Digital Literacies
• knowledge assembly,” building a “reliable information hoard” from diverse sources
• retrieval skills, plus “critical thinking” for making informed judgements about retrieved informa- tion, with wariness about the validity and completeness of internet sources
• reading and understanding non-sequential and dynamic material
• awareness of the value of traditional tools in conjunction with networked media
• awareness of ‘people networks’ as sources of advice and help
• using filters and agents to manage incoming information
• being comfortable with publishing and communicating information. (p. 20)
In this chapter, the concept of digital literacy is rooted in a social cultural foundation. From this perspective, rather than thinking of literacy as one unified practice, it is better understood as literacies.
According to Lankshear and Knoble (2008), such an understanding has two important implications. The first is that reading and writing vary enormously. The second implication is that the different ways of reading and writing and the way these are culturally situated and learnt are themselves digital literacies.
Accordingly, from a sociocultural perspective, learning is referred to “... as the appropriation and mastery of communicative (including conceptual) and technical tools that serve as meditational means in social practices” (Säljö 1996, p. 91). “Meaningful digital literacy education should encompass a broad suite of skills reflecting young people’s social and cultural engagement in a networked society, their self-expres- sion, identity formation and participation in an online world” (Connolly & McGuinness, 2018, p 77).
Many school-aged people worldwide who have been labelled Gen Z and Gen Alpha have grown up in a digital community. The importance of young people learning digital literacies has been fuelled in part by the rise in use of mobile devices, social networking and the use of the internet more broadly.
In response to digital practices by young people, school jurisdictions have started to develop policies relating to digital literacy skills. Part of the Europe 2020 strategy is a digital agenda to promote digital literacy, skills and inclusion. This strategy, as well as supporting individuals, is also designed to benefit the Union by helping with climate change and the aging population amongst other social and environ- mental reforms (Europe 2020 Strategy, n.d.).
Countries within the European Union are developing policies to guide practice. Norway, for example developed a policy in 2006 in relation to digital literacies making it one of the first countries to do so.
Digital skills is one of the five basic skills which also include oral skills, reading, writing and numeracy as set out in a basic skills framework (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, 2012). In fo- cusing on digital skills, the fields set out in the framework include; searching, processing, production, communication and digital judgement.
Ireland has produced a document called the ICT Skills Action Plan, 2014-2018 (Department of Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation, n.d.). At the primary and secondary schooling levels, the aim is to promote STEM career opportunities and career pathways open to students. Some of the strategies providing courses in digital literacy as well as programming and coding, embedding the key skill of digital technology into all subjects, and ensuring all teachers receive continuous professional development.
Australia has also undertaken some work in this area. In June 2008, a Joint Ministerial Statement issued by the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) and the Ministerial Council for Vocational and Technical Education (MCVTE) stated that: “Australia will have technology enriched learning environments that enable students to achieve high quality learn- ing outcomes and productively contribute to our society and economy” (MCEETYA, 2008). In response to this a national curriculum has been developed which has technologies embedded into it. However,
Pre-Service Teachers’ Digital Competencies to Support School Students’ Digital Literacies
it is claimed that Australia is falling behind ... “with other countries including higher level computing activities in the curriculum at a much younger age than in Australia” (Thompson, 2015).
In moving to examine young people’s digital practices it is important to understand the different purposes young people use technology for so that appropriate learning experiences can be designed to support their digital literacy development. Darvin (2018) identified six different uses which include:
1. Identity representation: e.g., taking selfies, constructing a Facebook profile
2. Artistic expression: e.g., posting pictures on Instagram, publishing fan fiction stories online 3. Facilitation of social relations: e.g., chatting with friends on Snapchat
4. Consumption and production of knowledge: e.g., reading news online, preparing PowerPoint for science class
5. Exchange of goods and service: e.g., ordering books on Amazon 6. Entertainment: e.g., playing Minecraft, watching a movie on Netflix.
Clearly, there are a wide range of uses that young people access online spaces for, both for the pur- poses of consumption and production of digital content.
One of the issues impeding the development of digital literacies for young people in schools is lack of full integration into the curriculum, which is resulting in a disconnect between young people’s in-school and beyond-school experiences. According to Haugue and Payton (2010):
The use of technology [young people] experience in schools often bears little relevance to the ways in which they are communicating and discovering information outside of school ... Young people’s own knowledge, ideas and values are not reflected in the education system and school learning can have little or no bearing on their lives, concerns, interests and perceived or aspirant futures. (p.11)
One recent example of this disconnect between home and school has been banning of the use of mobile phones in schools in some countries. At the time of writing this chapter, France had banned all mobile devices (including smart phones, tablets and smart watches) in schools for students under 15 years of age. Some schools in other countries have also banned the use of mobile devices. In New South Wales, Australia, for example, a ban was placed on the use of mobile phones in all public primary schools in 2019 (NSW Department of Education, 2019). There is debate in NSW where school principals are suggesting the use of mobile phones should be incorporated into the curriculum. As one principal stated “children should be learning digital citizenship to address issues like cyber-bullying rather than banning devices, which could be used for research or sharing work” (Hunter, 2019). Discussion is needed at both national and school levels to ensure that the technologies needed to support learning are available in schools to provide important learning opportunities to develop digital literacies for young people.
Learning How To Be Safe Online
As highlighted earlier, one aspect of digital literacy for young people is have the knowledge as to how to act safely and ethically online. Companies and individuals target young people through setting up online sites with the knowledge that they lack some of the cognition skills whilst not necessarily the digital skills. Young people access to legitimate sites can also end in difficulty, through them not following procedures or not understanding the implications of their actions. “Young people can get themselves
33 Pre-Service Teachers’ Digital Competencies to Support School Students’ Digital Literacies
into mental, physical, emotional or financial difficulties if they do not have the skills to safely navigate in an online world” (Maher, 2013, p. 71). It is therefore important that young people are equipped with both cognitive and digital skills, which go hand-in-hand.
Some of these skills as outlined by Cassidy, Faucher and Jackson (2013) include empowering students in terms of technological skills, critical thinking skills, netiquette, e-safety skills, assessment of online risks, and how to protect themselves, as well as their reputation and privacy online.
Student reception of cyber-safety programs and initiatives is an emerging area of research, in part because the various cyber-risks are rapidly evolving with technological developments e.g., “concerns over teen sexting have more recently become associated with their use of the application Snapchat …”
(Adorjan & Ricciardelli, 2019, p. 3). In a study conducted by these authors with participants aged between 13 and 19, it was found that the concentration of cyber-safety messages is being received in junior high school, with less emphasis by the time students reach senior high school. They argue it appears high school students are expected to have successfully internalised the directives for online safety received in earlier grades. This is problematic as the types of experiences younger students have in comparison to older students are very different and the types of skills needed are also different.
In a study focusing on student opinions regarding cyber safety, the most frequently raised concerns were that school curricula were deemed outdated, providing too much generic information, and empha- sizing extreme cases which were unconvincing and not relevant to the students’ daily experiences (Fisk, 2016). However, Fisk (2016) reported that younger students found the programs more relevant than older students. He stated that high school students are tired of youth internet safety.
School-related learning requires young people to engage online with content and other people both at school and at home. Given this, it is important that schools provide opportunities for young people to be able to interact online where they develop the skills and knowledge they need to ensure safety and well being. The role of authorities in supporting such education is important. One example is the Qatar’s Ministry of Information and Communications Technology, known as ictQATAR who work alongside teachers and parents to teach children internet responsibility and safety (Spires, Paul, & Kerkhoff, 2019).
In Australia, the office of the eSafety Commissioner (funded by the Australian Government), provides resources for use in schools as well as information for parents/carers.
Developing Digital Literacies Through Serious Digital Games
One way that students can develop digital literacies is through the use of serious digital games. A serious game has been defined as a game in which education (in its various forms) is its primary goal, rather than entertainment (Breuer & Bente, 2010). Such games provide students with opportunities to learn from their involvement within a structured experience (Maher, 2019). According to Prensky, (2012), it is important that teachers find ways to create 21st century citizens, which requires fully integrating skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, video and programming into teaching. In this respect, serious games may help teachers in this area (Lorenzi, et al., 2019).
Many young people engage in digital games in their homes. In a Digital Australia report for example (Brand, Todhunter, & Jarvis, 2017), it was found that 97 per cent of homes with children had video games. This figure is also similar for teens aged 13 to 17 in the United States where it was found in one study that 84 per cent of teens say they have or have access to a game console at home, and 90 per cent say they play computer games (whether on a computer, game console or cellphone) (Anderson & Jiang, 2018). Clearly, a high percentage of young people play digital games. In education, digital games are
Pre-Service Teachers’ Digital Competencies to Support School Students’ Digital Literacies
being introduced into the classroom that are aligned with the school curriculum and more easily inte- grated into instruction (DeCoito & Richardson, 2018). This makes them a useful tool to support learning.
There are a number of benefits for young people through learning with series digital games. Some of these benefits include increasing learning effectiveness, interest, and motivation (Boyle, Connolly,
& Hainey, 2011). Digital games also provide an engaging and safe environment, where students can try alternatives and observe the consequences, learning from their own mistakes (Prensky, 2007).
An example of a digital game that has educational benefits is Mindcraft. This game was highly popular around 2011. According to Dezuanni, Beavis, and O’Mara (2015), it has educational potential.
According to Dezuanni (2018): “Minecraft digital making provides new possibilities for thinking about media literacy in digital contexts that necessarily complement established media literacy knowledge and skills” (p. 246).
Whilst there have been concerns addressed about the overexposure of digital games to young people and the content such as violence, online grooming, gambling addiction etc. (eSafety Commissioner, n.d.), there are many important skills and bodies of knowledge that young people learn through playing games as discussed. It is important that these sophisticated skills and knowledge young people develop at home through digital game playing can be captured so that other students in schools can benefit. It is important therefore, that teachers have an understanding of the digital games young people play and how they can develop skills and knowledge that align with curriculum outcomes. Such an understanding should be part of the curriculum that they undertake as pre-service teachers.
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ DIGITAL COMPETENCIES
Teachers’ digital competencies are different from the digital competencies for those in other professions (Guðmundsdóttir, Loftsgarden, & Ottestad, 2014). That is because they are required to model appropriate use of digital resources and tools through their practice, whilst drawing on theoretical and pedagogical underpinnings to foster skills/knowledge.
As regard to what constitutes teachers’ digital competencies, Krumsvik (2012) argues that proficiency in using digital technologies with sound pedagogical and theoretical underpinnings, and being mind- ful of the implications of such use in schools defines a teacher’s digital competence. Krumsvik (2008) suggests that teachers’ technological capability also comprise knowledge of socially, culturally ethical and responsible use of technology.
One of the early digital literacy models is the Media and Information Literacy (MIL) Curriculum and Competency framework developed by UNESCO in 2011. The aim of the framework is to provide teacher education systems with “a framework to construct a program for turning out teachers who are media and information literate” (UNESCO, 2011, p. 19). The framework includes three key interrelated thematic areas: 1. Knowledge and understanding of media and information for democratic discourses and social participation, 2. Evaluation of media texts and information sources and 3. Production and use of media and information
A more recent and tightly focused framework on digital competence is the Digital Competence Framework for Educators (DigCompEdu) (Redecker, 2017), which has been developed for the European Union. The six DigCompEdu areas focus on different aspects of educators’ professional activities. Each area is explained as follows: