1. What generalizations can we make about individuals and their relationship to modern society, based on Glasser’s control theory?
2. What generalizations can we make about Elizabethan indi- viduals and their relationship to their society?
Be sure to add any missing unit understandings to the stu- dent-generated list.
LESSON 2 Reading Language,
(10–15 class periods)Distribute theOrganizer for the Director’s Notebook(see Sample 2.4, page 88), and review the procedure for two- column note taking. (A mini-lesson on double-entry
journaling might be necessary.) In the left-hand column, stu- dents will copy text (a motif that they are tracking or any other meaningful passage that they choose); in the right-hand column, they’ll analyze that text and make notes for the final project. Review the analytical strategies suggested in the orga- nizer (see Sample 2.4) and ensure that students understand what is expected of them.
Double-entry journals are a great tool for analysis, and their format auto- matically differentiates process based on student interest. They can differen- tiate process by readiness, too, if you assign specific topics based on pretest findings. To support novice readers, I typically assign a few specific motifs and allow them to explore the one or two that interest them most.
Guided reading, discussion, staging, and viewing of Act I, Scene 1, differentiated by learning profile.Select student volunteers to read the first scene ofMacbethaloud three times through. After each reading, lead a whole-group discussion that includes these challenges for students:
• First reading: Paraphrasing the language into modern English.Ask students what “fair is foul and foul is fair”
might mean, and introduce the termsparadoxandoxy- moron.
• Second reading: Tracking the number of beats per line.
Here, talk briefly about trochaic meter (a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable) versus iambic meter (the opposite: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable).Ask:Why might the witches speak in trochees while the other characters speak in iambs?
• Third reading: Noting and sharing all the motifs that appear(e.g., witchcraft, weather, battles, light, animals).
Ask students about the overall pattern—or theme—
established by the combination of such motifs.
Multiple readings are essential to build students’ comfort level with the text. This activity differentiates con- tent based on learning profile, incor- porating auditory, bodily/kinesthetic, and visual approaches. I want to challenge students to conduct inten- sive, close reading of the text not only for better comprehension but also (and ultimately) for better under- standing of Shakespeare’s genius.
Because this activity provides an additional informal pre-assessment of students’ comprehension of Shake- spearean language, scansion, and imagery, I often jot notes as I listen to students’ reading and discussion contributions.
Lead speculation about the number of ways a director might present Act I, Scene 1. Create a list of two to five generaliza- tions on the board that finish this phrase: “The vision a direc- tor might present of this scene is . . .”
Ask: Do the witches appear playful and mischievous? Fear- some and devilish? Wise? Psychic? Some combination thereof?
Prompt students to support their opinions with evidence from the text.
Here, I sometimes share some trivia regarding Elizabethan beliefs about witches to help students speculate about how Shakespeare himself might have directed the witches’ scene.
Announce a fourth reading and select new volunteer actors who are willing to be “director’s puppets.” Choose a student director, who will make suggestions about ways to stage the scene and then direct the actors so that one of the generaliza- tions the class agreed on comes to life.
The clues about theme are there (the witches’ scene is foreboding, dark, and malicious), but there is still opportunity for lots of creativity in how to render that feeling.
This activity is also a dress rehearsal for the kind of work necessary in the final group project. Throughout, I look for clues about individual stu- dent strengths and weaknesses.
Show two or more cinematic versions of the witches’ scene.
Options include the filmed versions ofMacbethby Roman Polanski (1987), Trevor Nunn and Philip Casson (1991), Orson Welles (1948), and Sue Pritchard and Michael Bogdanov (1997).
Ask students to take notes on the differences between the cin- ematic version and the actual text. Which version seems most true to the text and why? Prompt students to talk about how their ideas about the mood and theme of scene, which they developed by reading the text, have been transformed by directorial choice.
This is a good way to show students how much liberty directors can take with Shakespeare while still remain- ing true to the text. I also point out to students that because Shakespeare’s work is now in the public domain, directors may delete text or move it around as they please.
Nightly homework: Reading and analysis differentiated by readiness.Students should read an average of 10 to 15 pages a night, with longer reading assignments going to advanced readers. Assign novice readers as few as 5 pages of high- lighted text each night, focusing on key scenes only. Provide these students with follow-up guidance and extended reading time during class.
Giving novice readers shorter and scaffolded reading assignments reflects my belief that the amount of independent reading novices do is less important than their success with it.
First Homework Assignment
The first tiered reading/analysis homework assignment of this lesson breaks out as follows:
Novice Readers
Students read a brief, teacher-approved summary of the entire tragedy and Act I, Scene 2. Then, they highlight what they think are the most important plot elements to share with their classmates during the next class session.
The summary I use is a factual report of the plot, not an analysis of charac- ter or theme. Familiarizing novice readers with the entire plot gives them a head start and also allows them to share their new expertise with classmates the following day.
This can be a confidence builder.
On-Target Readers
Students read Charles and Mary Lamb’s summary ofMacbeth (from the bookTales from Shakespeare,originally published in 1878) and Act I, Scenes 2 and 3, then paraphrase the passage where Macbeth’s character is introduced in detail:
“For brave Macbeth . . . upon our battlements” (I.ii,18–25).
They should arrive in class ready to discuss Macbeth’s character.
I base students’ reading group assign- ments on the results of the pretest, but keep the group assignments flexi- ble, as students can become more comfortable with Shakespearean lan- guage as the unit progresses and move from “novice” to “on-target”
quite quickly.
Advanced Readers
Students will read Act I, Scenes 2, 3, and 4 and then
• Highlight instances of motifs and figurative language in the scenes read.
• Scan a speech of five lines or more for iambic and tro- chaic pentameter.
• Come to class ready to analyze the scenes and choose a speech to present.
Subsequent Homework
During the remainder of this multisession lesson, students reinforce their nightly reading by responding to homework questions assigned from theMaking Sense of Shakespeare Tiered Question Sets(see Sample 2.5, page 89). This hand- out provides three categories of reading comprehension ques- tions designed to help students navigate Shakespearean verse, build key skills, and prepare for further analysis in their Direc- tor’s Notebook.
I sometimes discontinue these tiered and structured homework assign- ments after a week or two, deciding that students’ work in their Director’s Notebook will suffice as follow-up for their reading.
Novice Readers
Assign students questions from the “Plot Analysis” section, which focus on analyzing the plot events and progression.
Before novice readers take on ques- tions from this handout, many of them benefit from completing a num- ber of alternative assignments focused on paraphrasing key passages—
soliloquies in particular.
On-Target Readers
Assign these students questions from the “Character Analysis”
section, which involve selecting a character (based on inter- est) and exploring his or her needs, motives, actions, and behavior.
These character-focused questions get to the heart of many of the unit concepts, generalizations, and under- standings.
Advanced Readers
Assign these students questions from both the “Character Analysis” and “Language Analysis” sections. The language- focused questions address vocabulary, inferring theme from figures of speech and other textual features, and scansion.
Typically, advanced readers have all had some prior exposure to the plot of Macbethand need to develop skills with character or language analysis. I ask for their input about which skills they feel they need to work on. In a differentiated classroom, the teacher and student must work together to identify learning needs and appropri- ate goals.
Reading check-in activities.Open each class session through- out this lesson with a “reading check-in,” in which students reflect on the prior night’s homework assignment and provide a brief review of the events that took place in the play.
I focus daily reading check-ins on the text assigned to novice and on-target readers so that I can see how these students are faring.
Give occasional reading quizzes that ask students to recall basic plot elements or interpret sections of Shakespearean text. These can range from a few basic questions to an entire passage that needs paraphrasing and scanning.
A convenient way to create com- puter-graded reading quizzes is to subscribe to www.quia.com. This Web site allows you to develop quiz- zes that present questions one at a time in varying combinations—allow- ing students to remain at different points in the reading while ensuring academic honesty.
A final reading quiz at the close of the unit should resemble the pretest (see Sample 2.1) but use Macbeth’s final speech (“Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow . . .”) as the text.
The similar format provides good pre-to-post evidence of student growth in reading comprehension skills.
Mini-lessons and related activities differentiated by readi- ness needs and/or interest.Offer mini-lessons every other day throughout this part of the unit. They should provide information that is new to most, if not all, students. They may relate to reading assignments, as in the examples that follow.
All mini-lessons should be interactive, highly visual, and dynamic, and they should feature flexible grouping and tiered assignments. No mini-lesson should exceed 20 minutes in length.
Possible topics include character analysis; motifs; scansion;
types of writing (e.g., identification, comparison/contrast);
paradoxes and other figurative language (e.g., similes, meta- phors, personification, hyperbole); and directorial techniques (e.g., casting, blocking, costuming, soundtrack composition).
Responses on theMacbethPretest and the Production Skills and Interest Inventory (see Samples 2.1 and 2.2) tell me where students’ individual needs are and which students can skip these mini-lessons and move ahead with independent reading or research projects.
Figurative language occurs frequently in this play, and students who have an eye for these “special effects” of the language can better appreciate the vision of Shakespeare and harness these visuals in their final projects.
Sample Mini-Lesson on Character Analysis
Begin by explaining that character analysis is an important skill for Shakespearean literature. For example, Macbeth is a complex individual: both a hero and a villain, much admired and much maligned. He disrupts the Great Chain of Being, yet he earns the tragedy’s title role. It’s Macbeth, not virtuous King Duncan, who is the designated hero. Lady Macbeth is equally intriguing: a powerful, self-seeking female in a time when women held few positions of authority. Ask students if they can recall any other literary, cinematic, cartoon, or anime characters who are similarly complex.
This mini-lesson is differentiated based on student learning profile and interest.
Now, guide students through the creation of a simple rubric for analyzing a literary character. Begin by drawing (or having a student draw) a human figure on the board or on a large sheet of paper. Ask students to label the figure with aspects of a person that might be important to consider. Ideas might be personality, point of view and beliefs, family background, speech, physical appearance, gestures, movements, what others say about this person, the person’s actions, and so on.
Next, divide this mini-lesson group into three smaller
readiness-based groups to help reinforce the group discussion activity.
Distribute theCharacter Analysis Group Activitieshandout (see Sample 2.6, page 90), designed to help build skill in char- acter analysis and continue the previous lesson’s exploration of the Elizabethan age. As part of this activity, each group presents a product to the rest of the class.
Occasionally, I allow students to self-select these kinds of tiered assign- ments, intervening only if I have serious concerns about students chal- lenging themselves too much or too little. It’s important to help students take responsibility for choosing activi- ties appropriate to their needs.
Novice Readers
These students complete Task 1 on the handout. Note that one element of this task is to create a poster or a human plot diagram representing the Aristotelian plot structure (exposi- tion, rising action, climax, falling action, and denouement) and then teach the material to the rest of the class. Before the novice readers begin work on this component, check-in with them and give a short introductory lesson on the Aristotelian plot structure, noting that it is the norm for Shakespearean plays and Renaissance works in general. Use a graphic repre- sentation of this “plot triangle,” but do not provide any adorn- ments, as the students will develop visual symbols or
kinesthetic gestures to represent each element.
Not all mini-lessons and their tiered group assignments should lead to pre- sentations. However, the novice stu- dents’ presentation on Aristotelian plot structure is crucial. This early experience of success and mastery builds confidence for what can other- wise be a very arduous unit. It also reinforces their previous night’s homework assignment on plot analysis.
On-Target Readers
These students complete Task 2, which involves producing a poster.
Advanced Readers
These students work on Task 3, which involves casting and performing their choice of dramatic scene.
Advanced students have only one product option and less differentiation because they are most ready to direct.
For homework, students can go on to complete one of the RAFT Activity Options(see Sample 2.7, page 92), based on interest. This activity can also be an in-class assignment where students choose their own groups based on their inter- est in a particular character.
Because character identification is a key skill in this unit, I want students to explore the complex motivations of the most important individuals in this drama. The RAFT options in Sample 2.7 are keyed to Acts I and II and are typical for what I might provide for succeeding acts.
TheTiered Worksheet on Paradox(see Sample 2.8, page 93) illustrates the kind of assignment students complete to rein- force mini-lessons. Task A is designed for novice or on-target students; Task B is designed for advanced students.
On this handout, note that there are no perfect answers as to which pairs of paradoxes are truly oxymorons.
The point is to get students discussing the concept of opposition and ambi- guity as revealed inMacbethand in real life.
Performance activities differentiated by interest.Begin per- formance days with acting warm-ups. “Pass the prop” is a cre- ative activity, where students pass an item such as a wooden spoon or a feather and pantomime its multiple uses (a spoon is no longer a spoon but a microphone, a lollipop, a radio antenna, etc.).
There are two types of performance days.
Language-Focused Performance Days
With teacher involvement and coaching, students read aloud in front of the entire class. Some students play director, lead- ing multiple rehearsals of certain lines in order to master the meter, convey meaning and theme, and communicate particu- lar visions.
Performance days lay additional foun- dation for the final group project (see page 80). I like to use drama activities in the classroom and have found that acting warm-ups, such as those rec- ommended in books like Viola Spolin’sTheater Games for the Classroom: A Teacher’s Handbook, can make a big difference in students’
comfort level.
Visual Performance Days
On these days, small groups of students storyboard/sketch brief scenes and then present the visuals to the class or rehearse and present those scenes.
I provide a prop box stocked with ran- dom materials (plastic swords, hats, pots and pot lids, robes, etc.) that can quickly suggest lances, cauldrons, and other items needed for a Renaissance production ofMacbeth. Sometimes I preview Option B of the Final Group Project (see page 81) by asking stu- dents to consider what props might be used if the scene were set in the present day.
Tell students that their groups should investigate and discuss the following questions as they rehearse their scenes:
1. What’s the basic summary of the plot? What are the most important lines for this scene? Choose a passage of 5 to 10 lines and be ready to justify your choice.
2. What are the key stresses, motifs, and figurative language in the scene, and how do these “special effects” help express the scene’s theme?
3. How will you present this scene to express a directorial vision—or theme—that also stays true to the text?
These discussion questions provide scaffolding. Note that they’re similar to the homework questions (see Sample 2.5).
The Director’s Notebooks that students have been maintaining are excellent resources here. I
remind them to use vocal, kinesthetic, or visual emphases to stress in performance the figurative language that they found significant while reading.
Hold whole-class discussions after students’ visual performances. Follow-up questions might include the following:
• What is the character’s motivation (goal) in this scene?
• What need is this character trying to meet? Is it represen- tative of the individual, or does it appear to be a societal goal?
• Is this character’s situation a result of personal choice or coincidence/providence?
• What is Shakespeare’s “hidden message”—or theme—in this scene? Can you boil it down to a clear, succinct statement?
• How do motifs present in the scene?
• How much influence does this individual seem to have at this moment in the play? How much does society limit his or her power here?
• How have the actors used props to suggest theme?
I like to ask certain advanced students and students with strong interest and skill in acting, directing, and staging theater to lead these discussions. Dis- cussion provides an opportunity to review unit understandings, especially regarding the character of Macbeth.
Certain scenes explore issues relevant to adolescent interests, so ask these questions, requiring that students defend their answer with textual evidence:
• Are the witches in control?
• How does a good man go bad?
• Is Macbeth a hero or a villain?
• How are situations in this scene both “fair” and “foul”
simultaneously?
• If a situation can be both “foul” and “fair,” how would Shakespeare advise us to handle morally ambiguous situations?
These questions might be extended as journal entries that explore students’ lives. For example:
• Do you believe in fate/supernatural forces at work?
• Have you ever known a good person to “go bad”? Have you ever been tempted to do something morally wrong, and how did you handle it?
• What situations have you been in where things were both “fair” and “foul” simultaneously?
When students submit their journals for my feedback, I give them the option of folding over—in effect, not submitting—a certain number of entries—perhaps one of every three.
This allows students some personal space where they can reflect without fear of “judgment.”
Socratic seminar.Conclude the reading of the play with a two-day discussion in a Socratic seminar format.
Begin by establishing the ground rules:
1. Evidence-supported analysis is essential.
2. Everyone is expected to participate in the spirit of dialogue rather than debate. Students should question and challenge others’ opinions while demonstrating respect, curiosity, and cooperation by engaging others and listening to one another.
Here are some recommended questions.
Socratic seminars (see Glossary, page 356) are discussions initiated by the teacher but perpetuated by the students.
Day 1: Opening Questions
• Was Macbeth a victim of fate or of his own choices?
• What factors contributed the most to Macbeth’s rise and demise? How much control, if any, did the witches wield?
• Which of Macbeth’s choices showed him at his best?
Which showed him at his worst?
• Which individual in this play is set up as a worthy role model? How do you know?
These opening questions are designed to prompt students to make a claim about Shakespeare’s “message,”
using the text as the main source of evidence. My aim is to help them see Shakespeare as a “living author” who still speaks to us today. His text is complex and ambiguous enough to handle multiple interpretations.