CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
B. The Concept of Perception
In psychology, philosophy and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining understanding of sensory information. In biology, perception is understood as “the mental interpretation of physical sensations produced by stimuli from the outside word”. Here „mental interpretation‟ has been interpreted as a process of constructing an internal model of the environment. Through the theory by businessdictionary.com cites of (shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in, 2009: 1), definition of perception is the “Process by which people translate sensory impressions into a coherent and unified view of the world around them. Though necessarily based on incomplete and unverified (or unreliable) information perception is „the reality‟ and guides human behavior in general”.
According to Robbins (2003) perception is the process taken by individuals to govern and to interpret perception of sensory to give significance in their environment. Perception can be defined as people
recognition and interpretation of sensory information. Perception is defined variously by different scholars as Chee (2002) has stated that the reception of stimuli that can be influenced by an individual‟s mental awareness, past experience, knowledge, motivation and social interactions. The perceptions of an individual eventually give rise to an individual‟s attitudes. Millikan (2004) also states that perception is a way of understanding natural signs or, better of translating natural signs into intentional signs.
According to Leavit (2002) found that the definition of perception in the narrow sense is right, how to see something. While generally perception is opinion, how to define something.
Lindsay and Norman (1997) states that perception as the process by which organism interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. Sensation usually refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation of sensory receptors in the eyes, ears, noses, tongue, or skin.
Rose (1995) said that in the science of psychology, there are terms of processing the information received from the observations, one of term is perception. Perception is a psychological function that starts form the sensation, continued multiple stimuli at once. Stimuli that have received and are grouped in such a way is then interpreted into an individual subjective meaning.
Perception also includes how people respond the information. People can think of perception as a process where they take in sensory information from environment and use the information in order to interact with the environment. Perception allows people to take the sensory information in and make it into something meaningful.
As stated by Slameto (2003: 49-50), there are several factors that affect the perception that is:
1. Attention is the concentration or concentration of all individual activities aimed at the teacher
2. Set is the hope someone will stimulate that will arise
3. Needs means that a moment or self-settled, a person will affect the perception oaring it
4. Value System, the value system prevailing nature of a society affects perception
5. Personality traits, individuals have personality traits such as ignorance, arrogance, and sensitive to the environment and objects resulting in different perceptions.
In any event, the perception conduct to the condition and sensation are occurred someone to give a little bit result about what someone feel based on internal factor like affective and external factor as social environment. In second theory on businessdictionary.com states that perception refers to „the
reality‟ and guides human behavior in general through human translate sensory. Briefly the perception necessary the complex systems have relation with someone personality, attention, the value system, and hope someone which all of them as factors build up a perception.
a. Social Perception
Social perception is how an individual “sees” others and how others perceive an individual (Pickens, 2005: 60).
This is accomplished through various means such as classifying an individual based on a single characteristic (halo effect), evaluating a person‟s characteristics by comparison to others (contrast effect), perceiving others in ways that really reflect a perceiver‟s own attitudes and beliefs (projection), judging someone on the basis of one‟s perception of the group to which that person belongs (stereotyping), causing a person to act erroneously based on another person‟s perception (Pygmalion effect), or controlling another person‟s perception of oneself (impression management).
b. Principle of Perception
This principle is a key to understanding the provenance and purpose of perceptual categories (http://www.cogsci.uci.edu): They are satisficing solutions to problems such as feeding, mating, and predation that are faced by all organisms in all niches. They are, in general, only local maxima of fitness.The fitness function depends not just on one factor, but on numerous factors, including the costs of classification errors, the time and energy
required to compute a category, and the specific properties of predators, prey and mates in a particular niche. Furthermore, the solutions depend critically on what adaptive structures the organism already has: It can be less costly to co-opt an existing structure for a new purpose than to evolve de novo a structure that might better solve the problem.
b. Types of Perception
Based on the explanation from perception Robbins (2003) divides perception in the three types as follow:
a. Person Perception
Person perception refers two those process by which we come to know and think about other. Their characteristic, qualities, and inner state. We construct image of others in ways that serve to stabilize, make predictable, and render our manageable view of the social world extend to which we attribute stable straits and enduring disposition to the others people.
We feel that we are better able to understand their behavior and predict their future actions and we use these nations to guide our interaction which them.
b. Social Perception
Social perception means that trying to understand people whether they are professional athletes, political, leaders, criminal, defendants, entertainer, or loved one closer to home is not easy task.
Perception does not occur in vacuum instead we bring to bear prior knowledge that we have structure and stored in our heads for the processing of new information about individuals. Social life dictates that we do something more than creatures of the moment. Sustained patterns of interaction or social relationship require us to retain information, as the situation require. Without memory we should react to every events as if it we unique, and if we did not remember the facts, we should be in capable of thinking or reasoning.
c. Perception of Situation
Social psycholinguistic views a situation as all the social factors that influence a person‟s experience or behavior at a given time, and give a place.
It is an interaction of time and space within which we act in specific ways.
The situational contest in which stimuli occur has consequences for their interpretation. Any one of multiple words may emerge. Depending on which stimuli we register. The linkage we make among these stimuli and our interpretation of the stimuli.
c. The Aspect of Students’ Perception
The students‟ perception is the students‟ perceive about their teacher relation with the personality, attitudes, emotion, experience, and expectation, or the perception of the student about the teacher competence (Musdahariah, 2017: 9).
1. Personality
Personality is a set individual difference that is affected by the socio- cultural development of an individual: values, attitude, personal memories, social relationship, habits, and skill.
2. Attitude
Attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor, toward a person, place, thing, or event. There are four different groups attitudes based on their function. The first is utilitarian. It provides the students with the general approach or avoidance tendencies which people adopt attitudes that are rewarding and that help them avoid punishment. The second is knowledge.
Knowledge helps people to recognize and interpret new information. The third is ego-defensive which is the attitudes can help people protect their self- esteem. The last is value-expensive. It is use to express the central values or beliefs.
3. Emotions
Emotions include motivation, feeling, behavior, and psychological changes which are relate d to the everyday speech, conscious experiences and the relationship that exist between emotions, such as having a positive or negative influence.
4. Experience
Experience is a master or knowledge of an event or subject gained in through involvement in or exposure to it. An experience in the subject field makes people be an expert.
5. Expectation
The eexpectation is a belief that something will happen or feel about successful, good, someone or something will be.
d. Visual Perception Theory
In order to receive information from the environment we are equipped with sense organs e.g. eye, ear, nose. Each sense organ is part of a sensory system which receives sensory inputs and transmits sensory information to the brain.
A particular problem for psychologists is to explain the process by which the physical energy received by sense organs forms the basis of perceptual experience. Sensory inputs are somehow converted into perceptions of desks and computers, flowers and buildings, cars and planes;
into sights, sounds, smells, taste and touch experiences.
A major theoretical issue on which psychologists are divided is the extent to which perception relies directly on the information present in the stimulus. Some argue that perceptual processes are not direct, but depend on the perceiver's expectations and previous knowledge as well as the information available in the stimulus itself (Mc. Leoad, 2007).
This controversy is discussed with respect to Gibson (1966) who has proposed a direct theory of perception which is a 'bottom-up' theory, and Gregory (1970) who has proposed a constructivist (indirect) theory of perception which is a 'top-down' theory.
Psychologists distinguish between two types of processes in perception: bottom-up processing and top-down processing.
Bottom-up processingis also known as data-driven processing, because perception begins with the stimulus itself. Processing is carried out in one direction from the retina to the visual cortex, with each successive stage in the visual pathway carrying out ever more complex analysis of the input.
Top-down processing refers to the use of contextual information in pattern recognition. For example, understanding difficult handwriting is easier when reading complete sentences than when reading single and isolated words. This is because the meaning of the surrounding words provide a context to aid understanding.
Psychologist Richard Gregory argued that perception is a constructive process which relies on top-down processing. For Gregory (1970) perception is a hypothesis.
Gregory (1970) stated that perception involves making inferences about what we see and trying to make a best guess. Prior knowledge and past experience, he argued, are crucial in perception.When we look at something, we develop a perceptual hypothesis, which is based on prior knowledge. The hypotheses we develop are nearly always correct. However, on rare occasions, perceptual hypotheses can be disconfirmed by the data we perceive.
e. Indicators of Perception
According to Robbins (2003) there are two indicators af perception:
1. Acceptance/ Reabsorption
The process of acceptance or reabsorption is indicator of perception in physiology stage, it is about the function of the five sense in grasping external stimulus.
2. Understanding/ Evaluation
The external stimulus that have been grasped will evaluate. It is a subjective evaluation. It will be different perception of each person in environment.
f. Changes of Perception
Perception is not something static but can change. The first change process affected by the psychological processes of the nervous system in the human senses. If a stimulus not change, adaptation and habituation that will occur affect response to a stimulus is increasingly weak. Habituation tended psychology from receptor that be less sensitive after receiving a lot of stimulus. While adaptation is reduced concern if the stimulus appeared many times. Stimuli that appear regularly are more easily adapted than the appearance of irregular stimulus.
The second change is a psychological process. The change in psychology of perception, among others encountered in the formation and change of attitudes. Attitude is a response. Attitude formation and change in
psychology is usually described as a learning process or as a process of consciousness (cognition). In the learning process, the focus was on the presence of external stimuli (stimulus), while in the process of cognition is the main push or the will of the individual itself.
Something that is perceived by a person with another person can differ in meaning. This is because what is around captured by the five senses are not directly synonymous with reality. The understanding in people who perceive objects and situations presented around them. Based on the perception or giving meaning to what is captured by the five senses, the person doing the activity or perform certain behaviors.
The purpose of perception has shifted meaning. As cited in Marr (1982) beliefs that the purpose of perception is to define information from outside world. Shifted purpose of perception comes from an evolutionary perspective who stated that perception is the way for creatures to enhance the chance of survival.
A creature has to able to feel and react spontaneously and accurately.
In fact, the way of creatures respond to the stimuli is different and will interpret the stimuli into something meaningful to each creature based on their experiences. They will detect and give response if the stimulus is “positive” or
“negative”.
The “positive” or “negative” result will reflect on the implementation of public speaking subject. The process starts with the sensation, when their teacher gave the instruction