Incremental bureaucratic policymaking has dominated past asbestos regulation in Japan. When the issue appeared on the public agenda, accompanied by media hype, elected officials were mobilized to exercise leadership. Bureaucratic officials con- tinually sought a scientific basis for regulation. Because of incomplete data and unresolved scientific issues, the scientific evidence provided at best a weak back- ground for conclusive policy debates. Politicians, on the other hand, adopted poli- cies to reassure the public, even when its anxiety was not rational and the necessity and effectiveness of such measures was not scientifically proven. Thus, past asbes- tos regulations were intended to provide either effective technical solutions or symbolic assurances, depending on the current political environment. These alter- nate policy objectives were never made explicit or communicated to the public.
Although the technical solutions implicitly accepted a certain degree of hazard, the intent being to reduce the hazard to an acceptable level rather than to completely overcome it, the political solutions reflected the more ambitious goal of eliminating the hazard entirely. They were adopted, in response to the public pressure to dem- onstrate its political commitment. On such occasions, politicians employed scien- tific arguments, more or less as a tactic to convince the public of the desirability of their decision as preferable precautionary measures. The advent of the precaution- ary principle did not per se induce legislation to completely ban asbestos products.
Neither precautionary nor preventive measures are possible unless sufficient politi- cal leadership is exercised. Precautionary arguments were employed instrumentally to justify their decisions.
Besides the difficulty in scientifically assessing the health hazards, in retrospect it has proven difficult to regulate the use of asbestos, especially since its use had been widespread, and it existed for a long time before the agenda was set. Until the final push by the health ministry, the industry was reluctant to replace asbestos with substitutes in producing its products. Although a series of policies were imple- mented to improve the working conditions at asbestos-handling sites, those efforts did little to enlighten the public; the biased information about asbestos risks was never substantially addressed, which adversely affected the ability of the end-users to make rational decisions.
When a political spectacle is created, a window opens for policy change.
Though constrained by the political environment, this window can provide a valu- able opportunity to adopt policy measures that could not be passed otherwise.
They can be either palliatives employed to reassure the public or genuine preven- tive measures, even precautionary ones. It can also be an opportunity for players other than policy makers, such as the mass media, organized private interests and other non-governmental organizations, and individuals, to create a public forum to promote understanding of the issues and to deliberate on a rational approach to risk management.
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Introduction
Asbestos is a naturally occurring silicate mineral with long, thin fibrous crystals.
It became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders during the industrial revolution and thereafter in the mid and late nineteenth century, due to its resistance to heat, electricity and chemicals. Asbestos, however, can be hazardous.
When asbestos fibers are inhaled or ingested, they can cause serious health damages, including malignant mesothelioma, lung cancer, and asbestosis (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 2001). As early as 1898, the Chief Inspector of Factories in the UK reported that asbestos had “easily demonstrated” health risks.
In the early 1900s, researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos mining towns. By the 1930s, England regulated ventila- tion and made asbestosis an excusable work related disease (Johnston & McIvor 2000; Tweedale 2001).
This chapter examines the emergence of asbestos-related health hazards, the development of asbestos regulations, and the socio-political context surrounding them in the UK, where, as noted above, health hazards of asbestos were noticed quite early. Our study found three distinct periods in the UK history of asbestos- regulations: 1924–1974, 1974–1999, and 1999–2006. The key events, major actors, and socio-political characteristics of asbestos-related risk management in each period will be presented.
A. Webster and C.M. Douglas
Science and Technology Studies Unit (SATSU), Department of Sociology, University of York, UK
H. Sato ()
Department of Public Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]