Both General Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry were redesigned in Summer 2013 following the author’s attendance at a Course Transformation Institute run by the Center for Teaching and Learning at Otterbein University.
This two-week course was designed in a hybrid environment so the attendees could both learn about hybrid course design, and experience it first-hand. Best practices for hybrid course design were introduced, as well as a variety of technologies that could be used in a flipped course. Attendees were asked to use McTighe and Wiggins’s backwards design approach in reimagining a course (15). Unlike traditional course development, which relies on examining textbook content and developing lectures to convey this information, backwards design emphasizes the identification of learning goals first, followed by development of assessment methods and, finally, design of learning activities. Learning goals for both courses were created by thoughtful examination of the anchoring concepts identified by the American Chemical Society (ACS) Exam Institute (16), ACS standardized exams, a review of topics taught in quantitative analysis (17), and of various textbooks. Learning goals for each course and a sample lesson with an associated assessment plan were shared with other participants in the course design workshop for feedback, and additional redesign continued throughout 2013.
In the design stage, the WHERE approach was used (Figure 1). WHERE is an acronym that focuses on: helping the students know where a unit is going and what is expected (W); hooking the students on the topic and holding their interest (H);
equipping the students, helping them to experience key ideas and explore concepts (E); providing opportunities to rehearse, revise, rethink, and refine their work (R);
and allowing students to exhibit and evaluate their understanding (E).
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Figure 1. The WHERE approach to curriculum design. The WHERE approach was introduced by McTighe and Wiggins (15).
Course redevelopment also relied on the consideration of what would occur in the individual learning space before class, the group learning space during class, and the individual learning space after class. The purposes of the pre-class activities were to introduce students to content they could explore at their own pace, and to strengthen their prior knowledge before students explored the content more deeply during class. The in-class activities were selected to engage students in higher-order cognitive skills including application, analysis and evaluation, as well as transfer of their knowledge to new contexts. The post-class activities were designed to allow students to evaluate their understanding, encouraging self-directed learning.
For both courses, Blackboard was used as a learning management system to organize content for the students. Each class meeting was associated with a folder within Blackboard that contained learning goals for that day, links to materials for the individual learning space, description of in-class activities, and homework directions. Starting each new day with learning goals helped the
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students to know where the unit was going and what was expected (the W in the WHERE approach). Students were hooked (the H in the WHERE approach) by a real-world example or question given by the instructor, followed by content information provided either in a reading or in a video created in-house using Camtasia software. Although many of the activities were developed in-house, other materials for both the individual learning space and the group learning space included (or were informed by and adapted from) available resources, such as the Analytical Science Digital Library (18), PhET Interactive Simulations (19), the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (20), Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and On-Line Teaching (MERLOT II) (21), Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) (22), and Analytical POGIL (ANA-POGIL) (23). To ensure students watched the videos, completed readings and other individual learning space assignments, Warm Ups were used in which students answered three to five questions related to the content of the learning activities, including an open-ended prompt addressing questions they had about the content (24).
During class time, students were encouraged to explore concepts and refine their thinking (the E and R of the WHERE approach) through a variety of methods including clickers, Peer Instruction (PI), simulations, case studies, Team-Based Learning, Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL), and individual work. Both formative and summative assessments were completed to evaluate student understanding (the final E in the WHERE approach). Formative assessments consisted of activities such as the Muddiest Point, Minute Paper, and worksheets completed either individually or in groups (25). Summative assessments consisted of quizzes, instructor-written exams or American Chemical Society (ACS) standardized exams, and, in the case of General Chemistry, on-line homework.
Although a discussion of the entire course design is outside the scope of this chapter, two modules are discussed in detail below, one from Analytical Chemistry and one from General Chemistry. Moreover, additional examples of learning modules for Analytical Chemistry and General Chemistry are described in Tables 1-4.
Module from Analytical Chemistry
The sample learning module in Analytical Chemistry addressed Inferential Statistics (Table 1) (26–29). Here, the learning goals were first clearly articulated in the Blackboard folder for the module to help the students know where (W) the unit was going. Specifically the learning goals from this module were to: (1) explain why both visually and quantitatively examining data is important and (2) describe the purpose of each type of significance test, determining when and how to use each. The pre-class information also included examples from popular media that lack proper statistical interpretation, and part of a TED talk by mathematician Peter Donnelly describing the misuse of statistics in the criminal trial of a woman, which contributed to her wrongful conviction in the deaths of her two children (30). These examples provided the hook (H) to get students interested in statistical
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analysis. The other pre-class material that students examined were three videos to introduce each type of statistical test: one 11-minute video introducing different types of t-tests; one 3-min video introducing the f-test; and one 3-min video introducing the Grubbs test to examine outlying data points. A link with an accompanying worksheet was then provided to the Introduction to Data Analysis Tutorial (26), which is a resource from the Analytical Sciences Digital Library (18) that guides students through: (i) a visual analysis of data regarding the mass of pennies as a function of the year they were minted; (ii) a comparison of the data using t-tests to determine if there are statistical differences; and (iii) an examination of possible outliers. This provided the opportunity for students to explore (E) the statistical tests. The in-class session utilized a cooperative learning strategy in which students worked in small groups on two in-house written case studies; the first examined two possible methods for determining calcium in the context of the effect of parathyroidism on calcium levels; and the second investigated fabricated experimental data linked to an invented forensic case. Both the clinical and forensic applications appealed to student interest, providing an additional hook, as well as the opportunity to rehearse and rethink (R) through the use of the various statistical tests. Case studies were chosen because they provide a realistic and contextually rich situation that students must navigate through, while cooperative learning was used so that students could learn from each other in a way that promotes deeper understanding. To complete the WHERE cycle, post-class activities required students to post in a discussion board about an additional case so that they could exhibit and evaluate (E) their understanding. Another example module on infrared spectroscopy for Analytical Chemistry is described in Table 1.
Module in General Chemistry
In General Chemistry a learning module on factors affecting solubility was designed in a similar fashion. The learning goals, specified in Table 2, were clearly posted in the course Blackboard page to aid the students in understanding where (W) the unit was going. In their individual learning spaces before class, students viewed a short video giving a real-world example. Specifically, the implications of amino acid substitutions associated with mutated DNA on the solubility of hemoglobin and its relationship to sickle cell anemia was described. This provided the hook needed to hold (H) student interest, especially considering that many students taking General Chemistry have an interest in clinical fields.
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Table 1. Select examples of learning modules in Analytical Chemistry.
WHERE Designation Activity
Example 1. Inferential Statistics W: Help the students know Where
the unit is going (Individual learning space)
Identification of learning goals
(1) Explain why visually and quantitatively examining data is important
(2) Describe the purpose of each type of significance test, and determine when and how to use each
H: Hook the students on the topic (Individual learning space)
Examples from popular media lacking proper statistics
E: Help students Explore concepts (Individual learning space)
In-house video, Introduction to Data Analysis Tutorial (26)
R: Opportunities to Rehearse (Group learning space)
Cooperative learning using in-house created cases
E: Exhibit and Evaluate understanding (Individual and group learning spaces)
Responses in discussion board about a select case in the media
In-class exam Example 2. Infrared Spectroscopy Unit W: Help the students know Where the
unit is going
(Individual learning space)
Identification of learning goals
(1) Describe instrument components used in infrared (IR) spectroscopy
(2) Explain the similarities and differences between UV/VIS and IR spectroscopies (3) Interpret simple IR spectra H: Hook the students on the topic
(Individual learning space)
Examples of importance of IR spectroscopy
E: Help students Explore concepts (Individual learning space)
Royal Society of Chemistry Infrared Spectroscopy video (27), Infrared Spectroscopy Tutorial (28) R: Opportunities to Rehearse (Group
learning space)
In-house-created collaborative worksheet
E: Exhibit and Evaluate understanding (Individual and group learning spaces)
Interpretation practice with the IRHelper (29) In-class exam
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Table 2. Select example of a learning module on solubility in General Chemistry.
WHERE Designation Activity
W: Help the students know Where the unit is going (Individual learning space)
Identification of learning goals
(1) Explain what is occurring at the particulate level when two substances are mixed together
(2) Explain the relationship between intermolecular forces and solubility and what is meant by ‘like dissolves like’
H: Hook the students on the topic
Real-world examples of solubility (individual learning space)
E: Help students Explore concepts
In-house-made video followed by questions related to the content (individual learning space)
R: Opportunities to Rehearse (Group learning space)
Learning stations that students rotate through, such as a paper chromatography experiment, and another assessing structures of vitamins (i.e. if they are water- or fat-soluble and implications of this)
E: Exhibit and Evaluate understanding (Individual and group learning spaces)
Dear Mr. Scientist column (31) (similar in concept/format to a Dear Abby advice column);
on-line homework In-house exam
The pre-class activities also required students to watch a video discussing factors that affect solubility, including intermolecular forces, pressure and temperature. This provides an initial introduction to the topic and time for students to explore (E) the content. Students also completed an activity before class that asked them first to predict if a particular substance would dissolve in another and explain why, and also to state any question(s) they had about the content in the video. This strategy helped the instructor frame the class meeting to suit the students’ needs. Depending on the student responses, the in-class activities included a mini-lecture to clarify ideas, followed by the rotation of small groups of students through learning stations that provided opportunities for students to rehearse and refine (R) their thinking about factors affecting solubility.
The learning stations were chosen so that the students could examine and transfer the material to a variety of different contexts, and also to provide some physical movement to help keep the students awake during their 8 a.m. course. The learning stations included: separation of inks using paper chromatography and subsequent explorations of the relationship between the ink and solvent structures; assessment of the structures of select vitamins to determine if they are fat- or water-soluble and exploration of how this affected warnings used on products containing olestra (the infamous WOW chips from the late 1990s);
and examination of the reasons for the packaging and storage conditions for carbonated beverages. The post-class activity for this learning module included the opportunity for students to exhibit (E) their understanding by responding to a letter in a “Dear Abby” style to Mr. Scientist, the fabricated question-and-answer
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person for a popular science magazine (31). The initial letter to Mr. Scientist introduced a fictitious and humorous conflict between the letter writer and a parent or friend that Mr. Scientist could settle. This method was chosen so that students could demonstrate the transfer of their knowledge to a new context in an engaging way. Previous letters have required students to describe how soap works to remove stains and how scuba divers develop the bends. Two additional learning modules for General Chemistry are described in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Acid-base learning module 1 for General Chemistry.
WHERE Designation Activity
W: Help the students know Where the unit is going
Individual learning space: Identification of learning goals
(1) Define and identify acids, bases, and conjugate acid-base pairs
(2) Explain the difference between and identify a strong acid (or base) and a weak acid (or base) (3) Describe structural factors that influence acid strength
H: Hook the students on the topic
Individual learning space: Real-world examples of the importance of acid-base chemistry
E: Help students Explore concepts
Individual learning space: in-house made video followed by Warm Up questions
R: Opportunities to Rehearse Group learning space: Team Based Learning using in-house created worksheet and IF-AT sheets (33) E: Exhibit and Evaluate
understanding
Individual learning space: on-line homework Group learning space: Exam
As evidenced from these examples and others shown in Tables 1-4, the pedagogical strategy and content delivery for both courses were similar, even though the two classes have different student profiles. The students in Analytical Chemistry are a more homogenous group consisting of chemistry majors and minors who are typically second or third year students, while the students in General Chemistry are mainly pursuing other science majors and are mostly in their first or second year. Additionally, the Analytical Chemistry course is smaller than General Chemistry (~10 students versus ~35 students, respectively).
The pre-class individual learning space in both courses utilized mainly in-house videos, which were slightly longer for Analytical Chemistry than for General Chemistry (9 min versus 7 min, respectively). With videos from other sources that were used in Analytical Chemistry, students emphasized that it was helpful to have an accompanying handout, as the main ideas of these videos were not as immediately apparent to them as those in the in-house videos, since with the latter, they could listen for the instructor’s voice inflections to key into important ideas.
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Table 4. Acid-base learning module 2 for General Chemistry.
WHERE Designation Activity
W: Help the students know Where the unit is going
Individual learning space: Identification of learning goals
(1) Explain how pH is affected by acid (or base) strength and concentration
(2) Calculate the pH of various acidic and basic solutions
H: Hook the students on the topic
Individual learning space: Which student is right?
Evaluation of two possible answers E: Help students Explore
concepts
Individual learning space: PhET simulation:
Acid-Base Solutions (19)
R: Opportunities to Rehearse Group learning space: Collaborative in-house written worksheet
E: Exhibit and Evaluate understanding
Individual learning space: annotated problem (25) and on-line homework
Group learning space: Exam
During the in-class meetings, both courses used a mix of individual and collaborative group learning. However, the specific practices that were used for group work varied between the courses in some cases. In General Chemistry, students were more apt to move at different rates from others in the same class.
Since individualized or small group feedback from the instructor was more difficult given the greater number of students, the students required methods with more immediate feedback. Peer Instruction (PI) (32) and Team-Based Learning (TBL) using immediate feedback assessment technique (IF-AT) sheets (33) are two methods that meet this need that were used in General Chemistry. Students in the teams in the TBL-inspired method were required to complete individual readiness assurance tests, team readiness assurance tests, an application exercise, and peer review. Although the teams worked together multiple times throughout the term, these teams were not used every class period when other pedagogical methods were employed. The pedagogical method that was chosen depended in part on whether the topic for the day focused more on conceptual understanding or problems involving mathematical manipulation. It should be noted, however, that the choice of specific group pedagogy is not reflective of the difference between a lower level and upper level course, but rather of class size.
There were some differences between the courses in terms of the types of materials used. Since flipping a course requires a significant investment of time in course redesign, initially using materials that are readily available can reduce the overall planning time. PhET Interactive Simulations (19) are free, interactive, research-based simulations for a variety of science fields. However, of the over 30 chemistry-related simulations, only a handful are readily applicable to Analytical Chemistry. Thus, PhET simulations were more widely used in General Chemistry. However, the Analytical Sciences Digital Library (18) provides a compilation of resources for more advanced topics, such as the HPLC Simulator
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(34). Additionally, Analytical Chemistry employed more case studies that were either designed in-house or adapted from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (20). These case studies required students to apply their knowledge of analytical methods and integrate multiple ideas.