Chapter 1 has already explored the historical evolution of PR and discussed the various definitions that are provided from a range of sources including academics, practitioners, national and international professional bodies.
This lack of an agreed definition is, however, still a problem for the practice. Deciding what it is and what
Introduction
Activity 3.1
What is public relations all about?
Ask your friends and family what they think PR is all about and/or which PR practitioners they have heard of.
Feedback
Chances are that the responses will not be flattering and that the individuals named may be high profile themselves (such as Max Clifford – who wouldn’t consider himself to be anything other than a pub- licist) or certainly represent activities or individuals with a significant media interest (sport, music, politics). Yet the bona fide PR practitioner will not be seeking exposure for themselves, but for the client or the organisation they work for.
You may also find that media relations is the func- tion or activity most closely associated with these high-profile individuals. Take a quick look at the contents list of this book and the breadth and range of subject matter covered under PR. Are these activ- ities reflected in most people’s understanding of the practice? Probably not.
Everyone thinks they know what public relations (PR) practitioners do. They either hang out with celebrities and sell kiss ‘n’
tell stories to the Sunday newspapers or they whisper in politicians’ ears and ‘spin’
the entire national media. Don’t they?
A glance at the contents page of this book will suggest otherwise. Each chapter addresses a particular area of PR theory or practice and while there are chapters on media relations and public affairs, the reality does not match the image (which may be disappointing for some).
This chapter aims to show where people work in PR and what they do in
the jobs. It explores the problems caused by difficulties in defining the field, but also the opportunities for indi- vidual and professional development.
PR practice is linked to PR theory and the need for individuals to undertake lifelong learning is stressed. The role of education and the question of profes- sionalism are also discussed, along with the role of professional bodies.
Traditionally, books about PR have tended to be either too academic to shed much light on the practice or ‘how to’ lists by retired practitioners who only describe what they did in their heyday.
This chapter aims to bridge that divide by setting practice clearly in a theoret- ical context and including examples of practice from different countries. It also reflects a range of experiences, through case studies and diaries, of being a practitioner at the start of the twenty- first century. Throughout the chapter you will be able to read mini case histor- ies and diaries of public relations prac- titioners who are working in different types of settings to help you appreciate the diversity of the practice and hope- fully gain an insight into what people actually do.
Activity 3.2
Comparing PR in different countries
Look at the information in Boxes 3.1 and 3.2. What are the key differences? How does each country’s PR association define PR? Look at each of their web- sites (some sites have English translations).
Feedback
Check out other websites – how do their ideas and statistics vary? How many have English translations?
Does the UK site have other languages available? If not, why not? (See also Chapter 7.)
Chapter 3 Role of the public relations practitioner 37
Box 3.1
Key facts about public relations in Britain
According to the UK’s Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR):
■ On a global scale, the UK PR market is second only to that of the United States.
■ Private and public sector organisations in Britain will spend about £6 billion on PR services this year.
■ A Guardian poll shows that more than 30% of UK media companies will increase spending on less expensive media over the next few months, includ- ing PR, direct marketing and email marketing (source: TheGuardian, 20 August 2003).
■ PR is one of the top three career choices for gra- duates (source: The UK Graduate Careers Survey 2003).
■ The UK Graduate Careers Survey reported that the media (attracting 12.4% of finalists), teaching (11.9%), investment banking (11.1%), marketing (11%) and accountancy (10.8%) were the top five career destinations for the class of 2006.
■ PR is seen as a vibrant, attractive industry, consist- ently ranking among new graduates’ top three career choices (CIPR).
■ A survey of 300 marketing professionals by the Marketing Society showed that 9 out of every 10 believed that PR will become more important (over
the next five years) than TV/radio advertising, spon- sorship, email marketing and events/exhibitions (source: Financial Times, Creative Business 21 Octo- ber 2003).
■ All listed FTSE 100 companies have a PR depart- ment communicating on their behalf.
In November 2005 the CIPR launched the results of the first major study into the size, nature and com- position of the PR industry. The research was carried out by CEBR and showed that:
■ On a global scale, the UK PR market is second only to that of the US.
■ The UK PR industry has a turnover of £6.5 billion.
The profession contributes £3.4 billion to the UK’s economic activity and generates £1.1 billion in cor- porate profits.
■ The annual turnover of PR consultancies is
£1.2 billion.
■ 82% of practitioners work in-house and 18% work in PR consultancy.
■ The UK PR industry employs around 48,000 people.
■ The health, public and not-for-profit sectors are the biggest employers of PR, together accounting for 36% of turnover for PR consultancies and employ- ing 51% of in-house practitioners.
■ 25% of PR practitioners work in London.
■ 6.5% of the profession comes from an ethic mino- ity and 2% describe themselves as disabled.
■ The majority of employees are graduates.
Source: www.cipr.co.uk (CIPR)
Box 3.2
Country profiles from the Global Alliance – a sample
The following is not an exhaustive list of member states or associations but a sample from different continents to indicate the range and variety of PR education, with a brief history of the development of the field or the professional organisation to indicate the relationship between the two. For further, more cur- rent, details on the status of PR in a range of countries,
see the Global Alliance website: http://www.globalpr.
org/knowledge/landscapes.asp.
Europe
United Kingdom
According to L’Etang (2004) the origins of British PR lie in the public rather than private sector: during and after the Second World War, the number of PR consultants appointed in government departments increased greatly to enable the handling of informa- tion and intelligence, propaganda and psychological warfare, and persuasion and PR. The UK professional body, the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR) has been involved in education since its inception,
➜
though these were closer to training than academic courses. PR education in Britain in the past ten years has seen an expansion in PR courses, often influenced by the location of the course in either a business or media school. Tench and Fawkes (2005) suggest there are two types of courses: a business school curriculum and a media school curriculum. Most PR education has moved from technical training in skills required by public relations practitioners, embodied in the Public Relations Education Trust (PRET ) Matrix to a broader, more academic approach. While most PR educators have practitioner backgrounds, many have over a decade of teaching and research experience. However, according to Tench and Fawkes (2005) ‘the pressure on the post-1992 sector to manage large cohorts and prioritise teaching over research’, has left a gap in UK research into PR.
The Netherlands
Van Ruler and Verc˘ic˘ (2004) argue that the rebuilding of the Dutch society after the Second World War, involved the promotion of business and social goods, although society had a new, powerful repugnance towards propaganda. In 1945, the first professional association to ease the exchange of knowledge between journalists and PR officers representing gov- ernment, businesses and agencies was established, leading to the Association for Public Contact, later renamed the Association for Public Relations in the Netherlands, and now the Dutch Association of Communication.
The first course in PR in the Netherlands was in 1940 and this was offered as optional in Universities under
‘mass communication’ and ‘journalism’. Current PR education in the Netherlands is very well developed, with about thirty full Bachelor of Arts (BA) programmes in organisational communication or communication management. They further state that all 13 research universities offer BA streams in the area of organisa- tional communication or communication manage- ment. A masters level programme has not been fully developed although there are several universities who are working on developing Masters Courses.
The Netherlands School of Communication Research (NESCoR) offers a Doctorate in Philosophy (PhD) pro- gramme in communication science.
France
The communicational paradigm in France that emerged during the early 1980s was the ‘Communicational Director model’ due to the emergence of the concept of corporate image, management requirements, institu- tional advertising and that of consultancy agencies in
‘overall communications’. The term PR is rarely used even though it is popular in consultancies. In the PR educational field, van Ruler and Verc˘ic˘ (2004) state that ‘the number of professional University training courses is extremely high’, as a result of which, the private sector plays a minor role in education. France has undergraduate BA programmes as well as post- graduate education and doctoral programmes, with some doctorates in information and communication science.
Germany
PR development in Germany has been related to political, economic and social conditions (Van Ruler and Verc˘ic˘ 2004). Six periods of German PR history, including Nazi era propaganda, have been defined.
After 1945, PR did redefine its tenets of practice under a democratic government; but PR and research in PR are in their initial stages, with purpose-free research undertaken in universities, while applied research, which aims to solve concrete practical problems, is privately financed.
Germany’s educational system in PR is seen mostly as ‘training on the job’. In the 1980s PR entered the universities and polytechnics and in the 1990s, several universities established PR courses within their communication programmes. Most universities in Germany today offer BA, Masters, and Doctorate in Philosophy (PhD) programmes. In some polytechnics PR diploma courses are offered.
Bulgaria
The term ‘Public Relations’ was first mentioned in Bulgaria in 1972 in an article by Svetozar Krastev as a component of marketing. Bulgaria discovered the real PR profession after the changes to democracy in 1989. In 1996 the first Bulgarian professional association – the Bulgarian Public Relations Society – was founded. It comprises practitioners and teachers in the sphere of PR, marketing, communication and advertising.
Attempts to teach PR as an academic subject were made by the first private university in Bulgaria – the New Bulgarian University Sofia. In March 1991, the De- partment of Mass Communication of the new private university opened its first 3-year experimental course in PR as a separate speciality. Bulgarian universities offer a 3-year degree, and post-graduate education and PhD courses in PR.
box 3.2 (continued)
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Chapter 3 Role of the public relations practitioner 39
Romania
In Romania multinational companies were the first to introduce PR at the beginning of the 1990s. Today there are PR agencies, PR departments within compan- ies and advertising agencies, and officers and special- ists within government institutions. Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) also employ PR specialists.
There have been several institutions trying to repres- ent PR practitioners and promote PR in Romania, includ- ing the Romanian Public Relations Association (ARRP);
the Club of the Romanian Public Relations Agencies;
and the Forum for International Communications.
The first recognised college-level course in PR was not taught in Romania until 1993 at the University of Bucharest. This PR course was added to undergraduate programmes for The Faculty of Journalism and Com- munication Studies and, according to the Global Alliance, was a milestone in the development of PR practice in the country, an example which was followed by a couple of other state and private universities.
Italy
The Federazione Relazione Pubbliche Italiana and Associazione Comunicazione Pubblica (FERPI) since the mid-1950s have helped in the development of PR in Italy. The history of PR has gone through many phases from the late 1940s through to the 1990s.
FERPI has currently about 70,000 practitioners who operate professionally in PR in the private, public and not-for-profit organisations.
In the last ten years, with a focus on university reorgan- isation, the Italian academy has seen an expansion in degree programmes in Communication Science in PR, with post-graduate specialisation in the fields of communication, PR and organisation. According to van Ruler and Verc˘ic˘ (2004) many in Italian universities question the scope of PR and its roots in sociological, psychological, historic-geographic, legal and economic disciplines.
The Americas
Canada
The professional body Canadian Public Relations Society (CPRS) was founded in 1948 in two original Groups, first in Montreal and second in Toronto. The CPRS has about 2,000 members – it is estimated that 10 per cent of practitioners become members. Owing to the dual culture of the country, national public rela- tions includes special considerations for commun- ication with the Francophone market. PR education in Canada is a vital area with many students graduating
in majors and minors in PR; in addition to the formal education, colleges and other adult education courses offer certificates in public relations.
The United States of America (USA)
The subject of PR has been taught in universities for more than seventy years (IPRA 1990) and there are now reported to be over three thousand degrees in the discipline. US public relations education is associated with schools and departments of journalism or mass communications; with the first practitioners being trained journalists, priority was given to the ability to write well.
In 1975 the first commission for PR education recom- mended that PR programmes should consist of a minimum of twelve hours per semester, which was upgraded in 1978. A model curriculum consisting of a minimum of five courses in public relations was later introduced (Grunig and Grunig, 2002). It has been argued that while several practitioners emphasised the increase in international PR, the fact that PR educa- tion in the USA focused on technical skills rather than on theory and research resulted in this area being overlooked to a large degree in public relations programmes.
The Port of Entry (1999) and The Professional Bond (2006), research-based reports by the PRSA, demon- strated a congruity between what practitioners and scholars believe is vital to the PR curriculum. The Port of Entry recommended undergraduate and graduate education in which curricular models are grounded in the liberal arts, theory-based across the curriculum and with the emphasis on courses rather than depart- ments where these courses are undertaken.
It has been suggested that in the USA, PR education can be seen as technical training, in contrast to Europe where strategic communication is the focus of PR education. This has led some to question as to whether the PR profession will be able to handle the challenges to be faced in the twenty-first century. However, an area of strength that American PR has is in the issue of ethics. Verwey (2000) suggests the practice of ethical PR may become a force to reckon with in the twenty-first century for PR professionals. This will in- variably demarcate the lines that the postmodern PR practitioner will need to serve as the agent for change to the organisation and also to be the conscience of the organisation.
box 3.2 (continued)
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Argentina
The growth of PR was affected by Argentina’s military rule, but when the country emerged as an independent and democratic nation, PR played a more prominent part in society. Currently, there are more than eighty consultants in the industry (GAPR&CM 2009) Argentina also has two professional councils of public relations, the first founded in 1997 to represent PR professionals with university and other tertiary education degrees in PR or related communication fields. The two profes- sional associations active in the province of Buenos Aires are: The Professional Council of Public Relations of the Buenos Aires Province and the Professional Coun- cil of Public Relations.
According to GAPR&CM (2009), PR education is still de- veloping; there are also specialised educational courses offered by universities and institutions, including three- to five-year programmes in PR.
Puerto Rico
PR in Puerto Rico follows US practice closely, but is adapted to the cultural implications of Puerto Rican society. The driving force of PR in Puerto Rico is the Asociación de Relacionistas Profesionales de Puerto Rico (ARPPR). The ARPPR was founded in 1970 and now has more than 200 members.
Communication programmes can now be found in vari- ous educational institutions in Puerto Rico, offering a bachelors degree in communications or journalism, or related curriculum as part of social science programmes.
Africa
It has been suggested that the concept of PR was practised in Africa long before colonialism, if one sees the similarity between the task of a PR practitioner and that of a chief’s spokesperson in traditional African villages. The move towards democracy on a broad front has promoted the development of public relations in Africa. As regards education, courses in PR in Africa are varied, and range from in-service training by employers and within government ministries (Ferreira 2003) to formal tertiary diploma, degree and post- graduate degree courses. A variety of short courses are offered in different countries by development agen- cies, professional institutes and private colleges; and at tertiary level, many public relations programmes are taught as part of a Bachelors degree in communication, mass communication or journalism (Ferreira 2003).
Some universities also teach PR to complement other disciplines such as marketing and business manage- ment. A number of distance learning programmes in PR are also available in Africa, such as degree and post-
graduate courses offered by the Uni-versity of South Africa (UNISA), the diplomas offered by the Institute of Administration and Commerce (IAC) and Technikon South Africa (SA) and the Masters in Science (MSc) dis- tance learning programme offered by the University of Stirling in Britain (L’Etang and Pieczka 1996, cited by Ferreira 2003). The University of Ghana offers a for- mal two-year post-graduate course in communication studies and the Ghana Institute of Journalism offers a two-year diploma course in Journalism, Public Rela- tions and Advertising. It now also offers three-year degree and four-year degree programmes, introduced in 2003.
However, Ferreira (2003) states that one cannot pin down or make generalisations about the state of PR education in Africa. He is of the view that some PR officers have entered the career through journalism, as in the UK and the US – indeed some of these officers have been trained abroad. In some countries the training is informal and is undertaken by other external bodies such as banks and private institutions, private companies and sometimes by the public rela- tions institute or societies in that country.
Asia and the Middle East
India
PR began to increase in India in the early 1990s when the government opened up the economy and multinational corporations began to enter the country.
PR companies emerged offering strategic advice and integrated communication solutions. Specialisation has become increasingly important and firms are demand- ing higher qualifications and skill sets from workers (GAPR&CM 2009).
The Public Relations Consultants Association of India (PRCAI) was established in 2001 to develop standards, ethics, expertise and knowledge in the PR industry in India. In each of these areas, the primary objective is to align the PR industry in India with international practices.
Sriramesh and Verc˘ic˘ (2004) argue that almost all of India’s big companies have separate PR departments, either working in marketing or social welfare of con- sumer affairs.
China
According to Chen and Culbertson (1996) the develop- ment of PR in China began 20 years ago with much emphasis on interpersonal communication. About one box 3.2 (continued)