The second aim of this paper is to evaluate the discouraging factors and constraints to GIS implementation in schools as raised by the various authors. Table 13.1 provides the list all the keys factors that discouraged GIS use and adoption by teachers and schools which were synthesized from the 15 research studies. Ghana, a
160 G.C.I. Tan and Q.F.J. Chen
developing country, struggles with the lack of computers and computer labs, but so do Germany, Singapore and USA, albeit of a different nature. In Ghana, the physical infrastructure barely exists, whereas the other countries struggle with opportunities and time to use existing infrastructure during curriculum time. Even within the same country, as seen from the case studies of Australia, New Zealand and USA from the table, a problem can be experienced in one state and not the other. Hence, while diversity among the countries where the case studies originated from would be favourable in our report, looking into several case studies from a country can yield various insights too. However, in general, one can see that the key factors discouraging the use of GIS from these 15 research studies pertain to the hardware and software issues, the need or lack of GIS training for teachers, the lack of time and the nature of the curriculum.
13.4.1 Hardware
Teachers in Hong Kong voiced their concerns that they did not have ready access to the computers or had to compete with the other subjects and teachers for the use of special computer rooms (Lam et al. 2009). Studies in America (see Baker et al.2009) and Northern Ireland (Roulston2013) have found that not all schools have sufficient computers to enable all students to have access to GIS programmes.
In Ghana, in particular, the hardware is a major setback (Oppong and Ofori-Amoah 2011). The authors stated that there was even a lack of uninterrupted access to electricity in the rural areas. In the capital city, frequent interruption in electricity supply was also common and that would disrupt the effective use of computers in schools.
13.4.2 Software
Besides hardware problems, several software issues were identified by 11 out of the 15 research studies reviewed here. These issues were the cost of the software; the complexity of the software; the lack of suitable GIS resources and teaching materials; the lack of digital data and need for curriculum support. Lam et al. (2009) stated that there were schools in Hong Kong without financial support to acquire GIS software and schools which acquired outdated versions of ArcView needed financial support for upgrading. Another major problem the authors raised was that digital data was expensive. In most countries surveyed in the research studies reviewed here, sometimes the use of software itself can be challenging to both teachers and students. Addressing both hardware and software problems is especially pertinent and the first step in ensuring a successful implementation of GIS. As pointed out by Jenner (2006) in his experience as a high school teacher in Australia, these issues had to be ironed out in the early stages of planning, as
13 An Assessment of the Use of GIS in Teaching 161
162 G.C.I. Tan and Q.F.J. Chen
Table 13.1 Factors discouraging the use of GIS in the 15 research studies
Factors
USA (Kerski 2003)
USA (Baker et al.2009)
Germany (H€ohnle et al.2013)
North Ireland (Roulston 2013)
Ghana (Oppong and Ofori- Amoah 2011)
Singapore (Yap et al.2008)
Hong Kong (Lam et al.2009) Need/lack GIS
training
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Software:
High cost/lack GIS resources/digital data
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Hardware: Lack computer/computer lab
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teachers lack time ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Teachers lack GIS knowledge
✓ ✓
Teachers lack confidence in GIS
✓ Lack GIS expertise/
support/practice
✓ ✓
Few teachers trained in GIS
Low/debatable merits of GIS
✓ High teaching
workload
✓ Students lack GIS
skills
✓ GIS is optional/not
part of curriculum
✓ ✓ ✓
Tight curriculum/
limited class hours
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
No access to electricity
✓
Taiwan (Wang and Chen 2013)
South Korea (Kim and Lee2011)
Australia (Wheeler et al.2010)
Australia (Meaney 2006)
Australia (Jenner 2006)
Australia (Kidman and Palmer 2006)
New Zealand (West2006)
New Zealand (Chalmers 2006)
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓
✓
✓ ✓ ✓
13 An Assessment of the Use of GIS in Teaching 163
teachers had to commit time (often after school hours) to learn the GIS software, as well as possibly adjust their teaching styles in accordance to the unique challenges and demands of the teaching and learning of GIS for students.
The lack of available GIS teaching units focusing on the local issues while keeping within the school syllabus was commonly raised as another issue. As a result, much time is needed to develop and modify units to focus on local issues and relevant topics. To develop and modify the resources, the teachers will run into difficulties in obtaining the much needed digital data. With few GIS integrated teaching units, it becomes a viscous cycle. In Germany, H€ohnle et al. (2013) found that teachers and students lose the skills and confidence in using GIS when they lack regular practice. The lack of simple and copyable GIS lessons is seen as a major impediment. The German geography teachers craved for simple small examples, which can be easily copied without much technical know-how and can be trans- ferred to their local surroundings. This is a hardly a surprising request and is frequently echoed by geography teachers around the world.
13.4.3 Teacher Training
GIS training for teachers has been identified as essential and the lack of it is another major impediment. There is a need for specialised GIS skill training to support classroom use of GIS (Roulston2013). West (2006) also stated that teacher training should shift the focus from teaching what GIS is to how to teach with GIS. Even after receiving the training, additional support for teachers is also needed for them to become competent and confident in using GIS.
13.4.4 Teacher ’ s Time
The lack of time is another salient challenge for the teachers trying to use GIS in their teaching. In his assessment of GIS use in the New Zealand context, Chalmers (2006) stated that his biggest concern was not with software or hardware but teachers’ time. On the same note, teachers also lack time to develop GIS-based lessons as was reported in Wheeler et al. (2010), Baker et al. (2009) and Kerski (2003). Teachers are hard pressed for time as a result of very tight curriculum and limited hours to cover the syllabus. The use of GIS is not seen as effective when teachers are trying hard to cover the tight curriculum. Time is also needed for teacher to gain confidence in using GIS and to attend GIS professional development and workshops (Kidman and Palmer 2006). According to H€ohnle et al. (2013), German teachers hardly use GIS tools at home and it would mean that when they want to use it in class they would have to repetitively practise and get to know how to use GIS tools all over again after a period of not using it. Hence, the use of GIS has been deemed as far too time consuming by teachers, especially after
164 G.C.I. Tan and Q.F.J. Chen
considering how much work is required in the preparation for the few geography lessons to be taught.
13.4.5 Tight Curriculum
The curriculum was another issue raised in some of the research papers reviewed here. In Australia for example, geography is not taught as a separate subject but as a small part of humanities (Wheeler et al.2010). The demise of geography and the move toward integrated studies have led to a reduced number of teachers trained in the teaching of geography in Australia and New Zealand (West2006). As for Hong Kong, the use of GIS in classrooms was perceived to be impractical and the use of GIS was not mandatory in the current secondary geography curriculum (Lam et al.2009). The limited class hours and limited curriculum time were key obstacles to the use of GIS in Taiwan (Wang and Chen2013). Many of the other research papers in America, Europe and Asia-Pacific regions had teachers articulating that there was just no time to introduce GIS into the already overcrowded curriculum (e.g. Kidman and Palmer2006; Lam et al.2009; Baker et al.2009).
Having examined the factors that promote and impede the successful implemen- tation of GIS, we can perhaps come to the conclusion that the efforts of the geography teachers are not enough. GIS is a technological tool that requires pre-existing infrastructure and equipment, digital data, time, knowledge and skills on the part of the user before it yields its powerful capabilities. These are further bound in a complex web that involves administrative, structural and ground level realities that need to be in sync, which is difficult to say the least. As we have seen from the various scenarios described in different countries, there is often a lack of an integrated and coordinated national policy and support. The cost to set up GIS is often high. This is further coupled with a curriculum structure that leaves little time on the part of teachers who already feel unconfident, unsupported and do not always see the worth of investing time and effort into GIS when tangible benefits are not always seen. And to state the obvious, not all Geography teachers are proponents of GIS. It is unsurprising hence, to see that GIS adoption and use is still few and far and successful only in a few selected cases.