GLUCOSIDASE ENZYMES
F. Ecological Condition 1. Microclimate
Growth and reproduction of plants are strongly related to environmental factors.
Climatic characteristic of the habitat of gemor is catagorized as humid tropical climate, with the peak rainfall takes place in April and the lowest in August, as well as no dry season occurs or there should be at least 7 days rainfall within a month over the year.
Rainfall data in Long Iram (Meteorological Station) in the year of 1900 to 1960 showed that gemor habitats have a high annual rainfall of 3579 mm yr-1 in average. However, within the last decade, weather conditions have been irregular caused by climatic change impacts. In 2005, the rainfall was 2501 mm yr-1, the peak rainfall occurred in December
and August (Kecamatan Long Iram dalam angka 2006) Observation results for the environmental condition of the area is presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Environmental condition of gemor’s habitat at Long Daliq, East Kali- mantan
Parameter Condition
Topography Flat, occasional water logging
Temperature 21.3 – 32 oC
Humidity 88% - 99%
Light Intensity 3% – 5% (540 lux – 980 lux ; open area : 20000 lux)
Forest community type Peat swamp forests
2. Soil Condition
Soil condition similar to the original habitat is one of the supporting factor for succesfull planting. Soil type of gemor’s habitat found in the observation plots was peat soil with the pH of 3 – 4 and peat depth of 1– 2 m, although Whitmore et al.(1990) described that gemor trees grow well in peat swamps with the depth of 2.5 m. Gemor can grow well in a peat soil with the content of alkalie (e.g. Ca, Mg, K, Na) and saturated alkalie were low. The content of Al was mostly low to medium and became fewer following the decrease of soil pH, different to the content of H+ which was being increased. As peat soil, gemor’s habitat has a high content of C and N total; however, most of them were unavailable to plants due to a high ratio of C/N. The thicker peat, lower content of K2O and P2O5 ashes, Ca and Mg contents decreased and soil reaction became more acid. The acid peat soil (low pH) was not always followed by the high Al2+
content (changeable Aluminum) as it happens in mineral soils. This might occur once the source of Al or soil minerals in an organic soil were present in a small amount. The cation exchange capacity (CEC) in peat soil was greater than in mineral soils. CEC value of peat soils was generally higher than in mineral soils and much greater in line with the increasing organic matter content. The value of CEC plays an important role in soil management and could be acted as indicator of soil fertility. The condition of chemical properties of the soils can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4. Chemical properties of the soils at two locations of gemor habitats in Long Daliq and Tuanan
Location Horizon
layer tract Ex-
PH1:5
Dry Sample 105oC Organic Matter
Bray 1 Mor-gan
Cation Changes Value
(NH4-Acetat 1N, pH 7) KCL 1N Above-
Below H2O Walk&
Black Kjel-
dahl C/N Ca Mg K Na Total CEC Al3+ H+
C N P2O5 K2O
cm --- % --- ---ppm --- --- cmol(+)/kg --- cmol(+)/kg
Tuanan 0-20 3.1 54.48 1.22 45 13.4 292 3.56 2.69 0.58 0.13 6.96 178.83 0.89 16.65 Village 20-40 3.1 56.83 1.12 51 9.9 231 4.35 1.15 0.46 0 5.96 104.76 0.95 17.89 Long Daliq 0-20 3.3 49.44 1.24 40 8.6 351 3.34 0.64 0.69 0 4.67 50.52 2.48 8.09 Village 20-40 3.2 64.72 0.99 65 15.3 243 7.98 0.76 0.48 0 9.22 38.92 3.6 10.05
IV. CONCLUSION
The impact of over-exploitation to the population of Nothaphoebe coriacea (Kosterm.) Kosterm was a limited availability of sapling and poles of this species. The IVI of the sapling and poles were 14.73% (in Long Daliq, East Kalimantan) and 30.04%
(in Tuanan, Central Kalimantan).
Different conditions of the Nothapoebe coriacea’s habitat in the two research sites (in term of vegetation, soil fertility and the important value index) should unplug different strategies in the conservation and management program. In Long Daliq, it is required to focus on sapling improvement through in-situ conservation activities. Meanwhile, at Tuanan the focus should be on species preservation by collection Nothapoebe coriacea seedlings to be planted through ex-situ conservation program.
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Badan Pusat Statistik. 2006. Kecamatan Long Iram dalam angka 2006. Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Kutai Barat, Kalimantan Timur. (unpublished report) Effendi, R. 2001. Pengaruh pengambilan kulit gemor (Alseodaphne spp.) terhadap
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Sumardi1 ABSTRACT
A 27 year old clonal seed orchard of teak (Tectona grandis L.f ) in Padangan, East Java comprising 24 clones, was evaluated for fertility, offspring diversity, and genetic drift. Flower and fruit productions were used to assess clone fertility in the orchard. Fertility variation measured as
‘sibling coefficient’ was found to be 1,62, having high genetic diversity (0,97) and low coancestry (0,03). The clones varied in fertility in which, 25 % of the most fertile clones in the orchard contributed to 47,5 % of flower and fruit yields. Effective population size in the orchard was 15, indicating that 15 of the clones contributed effectively to seed yield. Separating on the amounts of seeds that can be collected, individual collection, and proportional mixing of seed per clone might be useful in restricting over representation of highly reproductive clones thereby increasing genetic diversity in the seed crop. Another way to improve seed yield in the orchard is by increasing the effective population size. Thinning or prunning on highly reproductive clones might be useful in increasing effective population size.
Keywords : Tectona grandis, clonal seed orchard, fertility variation, coancestry, population size
I. INTRODUCTION
Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) is a native species in Southeast Asia, and distributes naturally only in the Indian Peninsula, Myanmar, Northern Thailand and Northwestern Laos along the northern Thai border (Troup, 1921), and Burma (Laskar, et al., 1985).
It grows at latitude 9o S (in Myanmar) to 25o N (in India), and longitude 70º - 100º E (Rachmawati, et al., 2002). In Indonesia, teak has been planted in Java Kangean, Bali, Muna, Buton, Wetar, Sumbawa and Lampung (Sumarto and Suhaendi, 1985). It is not clear whether teak is native species in Indonesia or introduced from India (Hedegart, 1976 in Soeseno, et al., 1993; Simatupang, 2001). It has been reported that Indonesian has the largest teak plantation in the world, where most of the area is managed by Perum Perhutani a state owned enterprise (Soeseno, et al., 1993).
In 2005, the Indonesian teak demand was around of 2.4 million m3. However, Perum Perhutani could only supply for 400,000 m3 (Iskak, 2005). Althought some can now be provided by community forest such or Java, South and South East Celebes, and East Nusa Tenggara) (Hardiyanto and Prayitno, 2008). Perum Perhutani has endeavored
1 Forestry Research Institute of Kupang
Jl. Untungsurapati No.7 (Belakang) Airnona Kupang, NTT.
to improve teak productivity by replanting program on the selected site. To support the program adequate, good quality and timely available seeds are needed in 2010, Perum Perhutani has a target to produce 18,817,916 seedlings (equal to 21,880 kg seeds) from clonal seed orchards (CSOs), while the seed harvesting was targeted at 17.000 kg only.
There is still a lack of 4,880 kg of teak seeds (Perum Perhutani, 2010). The main source of teak seeds in Indonesia is seed production areas (SPAs). The fruit production from CSOs has also been used to supply the demand since 1991, but an adequate fruit supply is still lacking (Palupi and Owens, 1998). The productivity of seeds in CSOs is categorized very low in Indonesia, only 0,1 – 0,5 kg per tree (Palupi and Owens, 1998).
The low fruit to flower ratio is generally found in plants which exhibit self- incompatibility. Teak is primarily an out-crossing species, but self-pollination is possible.
The extent of self-incompatibility in teak varies from 96 to 100 %, and commonly less than 1 % of self-pollinated flowers develop into fruits (Hedegart, 1976 in Tangmitcharoen and Owens, 1997). In teak, pollination success was 78 %, but there was low fruit set, only 3 – 5 % (Tangmitcharoen and Owens, 1997). Another cause of low fruit set was position of fruit and flower within the inflorescence making them easy to abortion (Bawa and Webb, 1984). The papillate stigma is receptive from 11.00 to 13.00 hr with a high temperature causing it dry earlier, and of flowering teak occurs in the rainy season with low pollinators activity (Tangmitcharoen and Owens, 1997).
Despite several problems in fruit production, seedling continues to be used as major planting material in Thailand, Indonesia and India (Kjaer, et al., 2000). It is thereby needed enough quantity of seeds for operational teak plantation. In addition, CSOs manager need to consider the status of seed genetic diversity to maintain sufficient level of offspring genetic diversity and reduce genetic drift impact.
It is cear that, we need to increase the CSOs seed production, with maintaining offspring genetic diversity. The efforts can be done with presciently of fertility, effective population size and genetic diversity of the parent trees. For this reason this study was carried out with aims to (1) quantify the production of fruits and flowers, fertility variation among clones, effective population size and (2) estimate parent trees genetic diversity of teak CSOs in Padangan.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS A. Data Collection
Data were collected from a 41.9 ha of teak CSOs in Padangan on November 2009 to June 2010. The orchards were establihed in 1983, which was devided into eight blocks and each block comprised 24 trial clones. Data on flower and fruit productions were collected from 96 sample trees grown in four blocks representing different field conditions. Data were recorded using binocular, camera and handycam in several inflorescences. The number of inflorescences was counted for each tree. Estimates of
the number of fruits and flowers per tree were obtained by extrapolating the number of flowers and fruits bearing inflorescences per tree.