ETHNOLOGY. 31

hereafter; onediffers from tlie other onlyin thiswise, thatif death is

caused

by

^certain

means

they goto the one,

and

if theydie a natural death they goto theother.

The

following is theiridea of the future:

"In

the spmt-land allwill

have

^itas goodas orbetterthanthey

had

itonearth."

Yet

theydesig- nate

two

places

where

the soul goes after death,viz: "

Some

go

up

;

others far

down

intotheearth."

But

thelower placeisconsideredpref- erable. This isdescribed asabeautiful land,witheverlastingsunshine,

where

theseal

and

reindeer

abound

infabulousquantities,

and

foodis

consequently abundant.

To

this latterplace goonlysuch as are killed

by

otherEskimo,w^omen

who

die in childbu'th, such as

drown

in salt water,

and

whalers; theythink, thisbeingthebetter place,itisasortof recompenseforthesufferingtheyunderwent onearth; alltherestgoup.

Inthis connection

we

willmentionthat the

Cumberland Eskimo

think theaurora horealis isthespiritsof dead

Eskimo

dancuig

and

havinga good timegenerally. Ithas evenconsiderableinfluenceoverthem,

and

theyare well pleasedto see abright aurora.

The

Greenlanders,on the otherhand, sayit isthespirits of

dead

'EskimoJigJiting.

"We

have beentold

by some

that those

who

huntin the

kyack and

get lostordriven

upon

theiceor

some

uninhabitedislandaresupi)liedwith foodfromthese regions; thatis,living

game

is

thrown

in their

way

for

them

to capture,sotheywillnotstarve. Thisisfirmlybelieved

by

them.

Unlike the Greenlanders, the

Cumberland Eskimo

of the present

day have no

permanenthabitations.

They may

liveatthe

same

localityfor severalwintersin succession,but each yearconstructa

new

snow-house.

The

Greenlander has a

permanent

sod or stonehut,

and

lives in tents only while

away

hunting.

The Cumberland

nativesliveinsuow-hduses fromthe time the

snow

gets firm

enough

to befit tobuildwithtillit melts, inJune.

They

generallybeginthe construction of the snow-house, origloo,inthelatterpart of October.

A

^placeischosen whichis shel- teredfromthenorth,underthe leeofarock,ifpossible,

and

wherethere

isa considerable depth of snow.

They

begin

by

treading a ^circular spaceaboutsixteen feet indiameter; onthistheykeeppiling

snow and

stamping it

down

as hard as possible till the whole

mass

^isaraised platform ashard asice.

They

thencutoutasquare blockfromthe mid- dle, abouteighteen inches deep. Afterthisblockis

removed

thej^have a chanceto cut othersfrom aroundthesides,

and

thisspaceis enlarged

till itbecomesofthe desired dimensions.

The

sleepingplatform isleft as theyfinished treading it,no blocks being cut from this portion; it

also servestostand

on

while constructingtliewall,whicliisalwaysdone fromtlie inside, the builderbeingfuruisliedwithfreshsnow-blocksfrom the outside

when

hissupply givesout.

The

wallisbuiltinaspiralform, so that,if viewed fromabove,it

would have

theappearanceof aconical coil.

The

onlytoolsusedin building area saw, if theycan getit, for saw- ing out theblocks,

and

along knife,

made

from awalrustusk, for trim-

ming them

intoshape. In cutting

and

fittingthe blocks of snow, they

show

^skill

and

ingenuity,sothatthey

make

as perfectanarch asthe best mason.

When

thehutis done, or ratherenclosed,there isneitherdoor nor window,

and

the builder is a prisoner.

A

^door, however, is soon made, butatthe oppositeend from

where

the entranceistobe; through thisaperturethe

women and

childrenbegindragging in the"furniture,"

while the

men

^"chink"

up

the places where the blocks joineachother.

The

structureis so strong thatit readilybears aman's weight on the top.

When

everythingis readyinside

and

out, thelampsarelit; some- times

more

thanthe usual

number

areprocured,

and trimmed

toburnas brightly as possible; the heat begins to meltthe inner surface of the structiu'e, butitsoon freezes

and

formsquitea coating of ice; this, of course,adds considerablytothestrength of thebuilding.

The

insideis

now

linedwith the seal-skintent oftheir

summer

toopiks, fasteneduj).

allaroundthesides

and

top

by means

of small pegs of

wood

orbone.

A ^window

^{is cut} through the wall over the entrance-way, facing the south; itconsists of ahalf-moon-shaped

bow

of whalebone, overwhich are stretchedtheintestinesof Phocabarbata,

sewed

together lengthwise.

This

window

admitsthelightquite well.

The

entrancesare long,lowstructures,sometimesonly two,often four or evenfive.

They

gradually diminish in size from theigloo, buteach one hasadoor, whichis solow

and

narrowthat a largepersonisunable to get through them, even

on hands and

knees.

The

doorto thehut properisbarricaded atnightwith aslab oficeorthe scapida of a whale.

Iceis alsosometimes substitutedinstead ofseals'intestines for the win- dow.

On

either side of the entrance-ways, the dogs areallowedtolie,

but never insidethe dwelling apartment.

About

one-half of the floor at the

end

opposite the entrance-wayis

fromone to

two

feethigherthantherest.

On

this platform theykeep

allthen- skins,

and

itisused fora generallounging

and

sleepingplace.

On

the top of the

snow

^{they lay}acoating ofCassiope tetragona,orsome- thing ofthis r,ort,

and

neatlyspread the skins overit.

One

cansee at

ETHNOLOGY. 33

almost

any

time an impish-looking head, covered with a thick

mat

of tangled black hair, plentifully

powdered

with reindeer-hairof various lengths

and

colors,protruding from

among

thepileofskins.

The

whole family

crowd

together on this platform,likeso

many

pigs.

The

lamps arekept burning

day and

night,

and

theAvoman's place isdirectly in frontof

them

onthe sleeping-platform.

Here

they sitcross-legged

and

work.

Back

of the lamps

and

around

them

they pile

up

their meat.

This accumulation ofgarbageisonlycleaned out

when

itbecomesneces- sary to

make room

for afreshsupply. This pileofi^utrifyingfleshsoon becomesextremelyoffensiveboth tosight

and

smell.

Meat

issometimes brought in the huts that is alreadyspoiled, even though thetempera- ture

may

be 50 degreesbelow zero. Thisoften happenswithdeer.

We

think the cause

may

bethat the

body

oftheanimalimmediatelyfreezes on the outside

and

forms a coating of non-conducting ice,which pre- vents the escuT^eof gas, which instead permeates the tissues. If the animal isdisemboweledas soon as killed,it does nothappen. Several carcasses, stillwarm, are often piled one

upon

theother,

and

the animal heatisprobablysufficientto startdecomposition before the

mass

freezes.

Around

thelamps liethe bones theyhavepicked the

meat

from,

and

such other parts as are discardedin time ofplenty. This rubbishisnot

thrown

out, butrooted

among

after afreshsupply, asit isneeded.

Nearlyeveryigloo has a little additionon one side, with anopening to itfi'omthe insideof the

main

hut. Inthisthey keep theirdeer-skin clothes

when

not in use,

and

also an extra blubbersupply.

Over

the

lamp

is limig a half-moon-shaped frame of whalebone, with seal-skin thongsdraAvn tightly across.

On

this they put theirfoot-gear to dry duringthe night.

When

the

snow

begins tomelt,

and

their igloos tumble, theyhave a sadtime fora fewdays.

The

skin-tent,or toopik,

must now

be brought into requisition

and

do service alone.

For

the toopik they selectaflat rock, from

which

the

snow

has melted,

and by means

of

two

sets of poles, thosefor thefront

end

of the structure the shortest,

and

lashed togetherat the top, likean Indian

wigwam,

with a ridge-polebetween them.

Over

this the skin coveris spread,

and

secured tothe rock

by means

of stones laid

on

the lovveredge. All theafter portion of this tent is

made

from seai-skin, with the hairon, on the backgenerallya largemalePagophilusgreenlandicus.

The

forwardpartis

made

from

what

they term

mamma,

which is preparedfromthe skins of the netsick in the following

manner

^: After the blubberhas been

removed

intheusual

Bull.

Nat

Mus. No. 15 3

Avay (the .skins of pregnant females

and

those sncldinji' yonnt;' are the best), they siilit the skins, or rather

remove

a

membrane

that lies be-

tween

theblubber

and

the skin proper.

The

splitting is done with tlui

woman's

knife.

The

skinislaid

upon

a^ilatsurface

and

the knife

pushed away

from theoperator.

When

the

mamma

^is

^removed

from the skinit is treatedin the

same manner

as the skins, stretched,

and

dried in the sun. It is tough

and

transparent, and,being veryoily,does noteasily get saturatedwith water.

When

the toopik is about to be raised, the skin covering is first stretched ont

upon

therock,

and

the poles are i>ushed underneath,

and

then^raisedup, stretchingthecover as tightlyon the poles aspossible.

The

toopikiscarriedwith

them when

they go huntinginsummer.

Such

habitations are of variable dimensions, regulated

by

the

number

ofoccupants somewhat, but

more by

the industry of thehunter

and

the

economy

of his wife, forthe skins needrepairingvery often; and,as a consequence,

many

of the

more

shiftless natives have extremely poor shelters,patched

up

with

dog and

bearskin

and

oldcast-awaypieces of canvas, which they havepaid wellforin serviceable seal-skins.

Their greatestconcern isto procure thepoles.

At

present

many

get broken oars, lance-poles, &c.,from the whalers; but still, ingeniously lashedtogether,

bone

supports forthe tent are yet found

among

them.

The

inside arrangement of the toopik does not differ essentiallyfrom that of theigloo, exceptit

may

be alittlenastier as a rule

and

smella

triflestronger. Sometimes whale-ribs are

made

use of instead ofpoles,

and

are very ingeniously lashed together. These were

more

in vogue formerly, beforethey couldprocurepoles fromthe ships.

We

^thinktheywere perhaps less

nomadic

in past times, a.s theretire still extant sod foundations,which were no doubt used ^as

permanent

abodes.

At

the present day, so

many

of the

Cumberland Eskimo have

^pro- cured

some

kind of firearms thattheirprimitive

modes

of hunting

and

theirhuntingimplements have, toagreat measure,been modified,

and

evenin

some

instancesaltogether lost.

Bows and

arrows arefastbe-

coming an

institution of the past^; theydo not

now

rely on

them

for

kUUng

reindeer asthey did atone time.

Bows and

arrows are found aroundthe settlements,broken

and

out of repair; the arrows, ofdiffer-

entki/ids,lying aboutunused, ordoingservice as

some

othertool.

The

childrenall have

bows and

arrows; but theyseldom kill larger

game

than snowbirds

and

lemmings.

ETHNOLOGY. 35 Of

prime importauce to the Eskiuio is his unan<jjor spear.

At

the present day, the sealing- spear isoften

made

from

an

old whale-lance, having a

wooden

handle

and

an iron harpoon head {vide sketches).

The

socket of the lanceisput on the opposite, endof the handle, andis

usedfor a variety of purposes. Thiskind of spearisvery useful to the

Eskimo

incatching the sealsin theiratliihs throughtheice.

They

are extremelyexpertin the use ofthis Mcapon,

and

jjossess such marvelous patience that theywill stand

by

a seal'satluJi all

day

awaiting there- turn of the animal.

This si)eariscarriedon alloccasions wherever they go

and

whatever kindof

game

theyi)ursue.

The

opposite end of the spearfromwhich the hari^oonisfastenedisalso their j)rincipaltoolin buildingfox-traps ofice, cutting

down hummocks

soas togettheir sledgesover theshore- ice, &c.

Not

the leastimportantuse of thisinstrumentisto sound the icewith it. In traveling they very often

come

to places where the raijidrunning tide has

worn

the ice verythin,

and by means

of this spear they carefully feel their

way

^along.

They

will even cross

on a

tloe thatis completely rotten

by

feelingaroundtill theyget

upon

a

more

solidspot

and

thenadvancing.

They

arevery

much

averse to getting intothe wa;ter, as noneof

them

are able to swim.

The

harpoon-head used with this spearis

made

of iron,

and

isabout three

and

a half inchesinlength

and

oneinchbetweenthe outsidetips of thebarbs.

They

manufacture

them

entirely

by

filing,

and

will sit

and

^filefor

many

daystilltheyget the instrumentinthe desired form.

For

whales

and

walrus they use a

much

differentweapon, the same^

we

imagine, asthey used before thewhites

came among

them. Itisa large,

awkward,

bulky-looking affair, with a shaft

made

fromthehorn of

Monodon

monoceros^ or fromparts of awhale's jawbone, ingeniously lashed together,

when wood

isnot procurable.

Some

have the handle comiiosed of as

many

as eightto a dozen pieces, beautifully

and

com-

I)actlylashedtogether,tillthe whole isas firm asthough itwere com- posedof a single piece.

Although

such large spearswere not rare

among

thesenatives,

we

found difiicultyin getting

them

topartwith them.

A

^{favoriteharpoon-}

head

isalsohardtoj)rocure,though they

may

nothave useditfor years.

Some

considerable valueseemsto be attachedtothese old imi)lements, especiallyif theyhave been successfulwith

them

in formertimes.

We

depend more upon

the illustration here given of this spear than

upon

thechoice of words. Their old harpoon-head for seals

was

probably

of the pattern here figured. This specimenis from a graveat Exeter Sound,

and

greatlyresemblesin pattern theiron sealhari)Oon-headsof the present day. Others

were made

likethe

wakus

harpoon, but hav- ing barbs, instead ofbeing iron-tipped.

A

^{veryingenious}contrivance aboutthese oldspearsis the perfect ball-and-socket jointwhichunites the echecnnmg, or bone portion (on which the harpoon isplaced), with theshaft.

The

shaft, if

made

of wood, hasa

bone

tip,whichis

cupped

to receivetherounded end of the eelieemung; theyarekeptinplace

by two

thongs of seal-skin, which

makes

itsufficiently firm to use, butat the

same

timewill allow theeelieemnng todouble

upon

the shaftwithout breaking

when

an animalis struck.

As

before mentioned, sofew

bows and

arrows are

now

in use thatit isalmost impossibletoprocurea

bow and

setofarrowsthat areactually orliaxe been in use. Inthe followingillustration,nolessthaneightdiffer- ent patterns of arrows are represented.

We have

derivedourinforma- tionfromvarious sources besides our

own

observations.

We had

in- structed

some

of the

most

intelligent

Eskimo

to

make

for us

wooden

models ^of all thedifferentkinds of arrowsthatthey ever

knew

werein nse. So far as

we

were ableto procure or seetheoriginal, these models werefaithfullj'-

and

wellexecuted,

and

leavesus

no

reasonto think that they in

any

instance imposed

upon

us.

Some

of the aiTows

we

have seeninthe possession of sailorsthat

had

bartered for

them

for a

mere

song, but

would

not trade

them

to us, under the impression that they

would

briug fabulous

sums

in the States.

They now

probablyadorn

some

third-rategin-shop.

Of

thearrowsfigured, ]S"o. 1 is

made

fromreindeerantlers, with short

wooden

shaft, anold

and

very

common

formofarrow. No. 2isperhaps

stillolder. Thisisalso

made

ofreindeer horn. Itis

more common

onthe Greenland coast than

among

the

Cumberland

Eskimo. No. 3 is the onlyone of thekindIsaw,

and

thisI

was

unableto procure; thehead

was

of flint,

and

the nextpieceofbone,withthe

wooden

shaftlashediu

two

places, showing lirobably a scarcity of wood. No.4

was

arare _(?) form of arrow

among

the

Cumberland

Eskimo.

The

head

was made

of stone,withtheforwardportion oftheshaftofbone

and

therest ofwood.

No. ⁵

was

iron -tipped, afavorite pattern

when

iron

was

scarce. No. 7 is

now

thestyleused

by

thechildren,

and was

probablythenextpattern suggested afterNo. 5, as

any

pointed piece of iron canbe utilized for thisform of arrow. No. Chas a lance-shaped

and somewhat

elongated ironhead; such arrows were

made

only

when

theycould geta^considera-

ETPINOLOGY.

37

ble iron supply. ISTo.8 is bone-tipped. I could not learn

why

the point shouldbe so bent, but

many had

theui so, and eveft preferred it. All theirarrowswere lashedwithhnely separated deersinews.

The

feather- vaneswerenearlyalways

made

fromthe primaries ofStrixscandiacaor Graeuluscarlo.

The

arrowswereallshort;infact,theirlengthdepended

somewhat

on the

wood

supplj'.

We

were unable to find but a single specimenof flint arrow-headsin thegraves.

The bow

is

made

from reindeer antlers; these aresplit,nsing only one of the halves in the construction of thebow. Itis always

made

in threepieces,ingeniously lashed together.

On

the back of the

bow

are three or

more

strings,

made

like the bow-string; these arefastened at bothends ofthe bow,

and

also securelyatthemiddleoftheback. This of course gives additional strength to the affair,

and

is a convenient place tocarryan extrastring.

The bows

areveryshort,oftennot

more

than thirty inches.

Not

every

Eskimo

is abletomanufacture his

own bow;

but each

encampment

has generally at leastone skilledmechanic,

who

supplies therest.

Bows and

arrowswere principallyused inthe capture of thereindeer^

hare,

and

birds, seldom seals. These

bows

are surprisinglyelastic, and the

Eskimo

are abletouse

them

with wonderfuldexterity. In shooting this weapon,thestringisplacedonthefirstjointof thefirst

and

second fingersofthe righthand.

Another Eskimo

implementfast goingont of use is the laMvak^ or salmonspear.

A

glanceat the figure will give a better idea of this in-

strument than

we

can exi)ress inwords.

The two

outsidetinesare each about seveninchesin length,

and

are

made

of reindeerantlers.

Near

the tip

and

curving inwardis atooth-like prong about one

and

three- fourths inchesin length.

The

points of these teeth

come

to the endof themiddle ^tine,whichis about six inchesin length,perfe'ctly straight,

and made

from walrus ivory.

The

three tines aresecurely lashed to a pieceofthejaw-bone of the whale, ofvarying length, sometimes onlya

foot,butoften

two

or threefeet.

When

the boneshaft istoo short to use,they generally have a short

wooden

handle lashedtoitto

make

it

the desiredlength.

The

two outsidetinesofthisspear arcveryelastic,

and

spring out

when

afish is struck, butclose again

when

the bodyof

•thefishhas passed

beyond

the tooth pointswhich project inward. It isthus impossible forit to escape, the central tine having entered the body.

Anotherinstrument, generally usedinconnection with theTcaUvaJc, is