Existential Therapy - Gerald Corey - Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy-Brooks

1. Identify the major themes that characterize existential philosophy and therapy.

2. Compare the unique contributions of some prominent existential thinkers and therapists.

3. Examine the key concepts and basic assumptions underlying this approach, including self- awareness, freedom and responsibility, intimacy and isolation, meaning in life, death anxiety, and authenticity.

4. Identify the therapeutic goals of existential therapy.

5. Understand the unique emphasis placed on the therapeutic

relationship.

6. Describe the three phases of existential counseling.

7. Understand the applications of this approach to brief therapy.

8. Identify the applications of this approach to group counseling.

9. Describe ways in which the existential approach is and is not well suited to multicultural counseling.

10. Evaluate the contributions and limitations of the existential approach.

L e a r n i n g O b j e c t i v e s

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VIKTOR FRANKL (1905–1997) was born and educated in Vienna. He founded the Youth Advisement Centers there in 1928 and directed them until 1938. From 1942 to 1945 Frankl was a prisoner in the Nazi concentration camps at Auschwitz and Dachau, where his parents, brother, wife, and children died. He vividly remembered his horrible experiences in these camps, but he did not allow them to dampen his love and enthusiasm for life. He traveled all around the world, giving lectures in Europe, Latin America, Southeast Asia, and the United States.

Frankl received his MD in 1930 and his PhD in philosophy in 1949, both from the University of Vienna. He became an associate professor at the University of Vienna and later was a distinguished speaker at the United States International University in San Diego. He was a visiting professor at Harvard, Stanford, and Southern Methodist universities.

Frankl’s works have been translated into more than 20 languages, and his ideas continue to have a major impact on the development of existential therapy. His compelling book Man’s Search for Meaning (1963) has been a best-seller around the world.

Although Frankl had begun to develop an existential approach to clinical practice before his grim years in the Nazi death camps, his experiences there confirmed his views. Frankl (1963) observed and personally experienced the truths expressed by existential philosophers and writers who hold that we have choices in every situation. Even in terrible circumstances, he believed, we could preserve a vestige of spiritual freedom and independence of mind. He learned experientially that everything could be taken from a person except one thing: “the last of human freedoms—to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way” (p. 104). Frankl believed that the essence of being human lies in searching for meaning and purpose. We can discover this meaning through our actions and deeds, by experiencing a value (such as love or achievements), and by suffering.

Frankl was deeply influenced by Freud, but he disagreed with the rigid- ity of Freud’s psychoanalytic system and became a student of Alfred Adler. React- ing against most of Freud’s deterministic notions, Frankl developed his own theory and practice of psychotherapy, which emphasized the concepts of freedom, responsibility, meaning, and the search for values. He established his international reputation as the founder of what has been called “The Third School of Viennese Psychoanalysis,” the other two being Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology.

Frankl was a central figure in developing existential therapy in Europe and in bringing it to the United States. He was fond of quoting Nietzsche: “He who has a why to live for can bear with almost any how”

(as cited in Frankl, 1963, pp. 121, 164). Frankl con- tended that those words could be the motto for all psychotherapeutic practice. Another quotation from Nietzsche seems to capture the essence of Frankl’s own experience and writings: “That which does not kill me, makes me stronger” (as cited in Frankl, 1963, p. 130).

Frankl developed logotherapy, which means

“therapy through meaning.” Frankl’s philosophical model sheds light on what it means to be fully alive.

The central themes running through his works are life has meaning, under all circumstances; the central motivation for living is the will to meaning; we have the freedom to find meaning in all that we think; and we must integrate body, mind, and spirit to be fully alive.

Frankl’s writings reflect the theme that the modern person has the means to live, but often has no meaning to live for.

I have selected Frankl as one of the key figures of the existential approach because of the dramatic way in which his theories were tested by the tragedies of his life. His life was an illustration of his theory, for he lived what his theory espouses.

Viktor Frankl

Imagno/Viktor Frankl Archiv

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ROLLO MAY (1909–1994) first lived in Ohio and then moved to Michigan as a young child along with his five brothers and a sister. He remembered his home life as being unhappy, a situation that contributed to his interest in psychology and counseling. In his personal life, May struggled with his own existential concerns and the failure of two marriages.

May graduated from Oberlin Col- lege in 1930 and then went to Greece as a teacher. During his summers in Greece he traveled to Vienna to study with Alfred

Adler. After receiving a degree in theology from Union Theological Seminary, May decided that the best way to reach out and help people was through psychology instead of theology. He completed his doctorate in clinical psychology at Columbia Univer- sity and started a private practice in New York; he also became a supervisory training analyst for the William Alanson Institute.

While May was pursuing his doctoral program, he came down with tuberculosis, which resulted in a two-year stay in a sanitarium. During his recov- ery period, May spent much time learning firsthand about the nature of anxiety. He also spent time reading, and he studied the works of Søren Kierkegaard, which was the catalyst for May recognizing the existential dimensions of anxiety and resulted in him writing The Meaning of Anxiety (1950). His popular book Love and Will (1969) reflects his own personal struggles with love and intimate relationships and mirrors Western society’s questioning of its values pertaining to sex and marriage.

The greatest personal influence on Rollo May was the existential theologian Paul Tillich (author of The Courage to Be, 1952), who became his mentor and a personal friend. The two spent much time together discussing philosophical, religious, and psychological topics. May was deeply influenced by the existential philosophers, by the concepts of Freudian psychology, and by many aspects of Alfred

Adler’s Individual Psychology. Most of May’s writings reflect a concern with the nature of human experience, such as recognizing and dealing with power, accepting freedom and responsibility, and discovering one’s identity. He draws from his rich knowledge based on the classics and his existential perspective.

May’s writings have had a significant impact on existentially oriented practitioners, and his writings helped translate key existential concepts into psychotherapeutic practice in the United States and Europe.

May believed psychotherapy should be aimed at helping people discover the meaning of their lives and should be concerned with the problems of being rather than with problem solving. It takes courage to

“be,” and our choices determine the kind of person we become. Questions of being include learning to deal with issues such as sex and intimacy, growing old, facing death, and taking action in the world. According to May, the real challenge is for people to be able to live in a world where they are alone and where they will eventually have to face death. It is the task of therapists to help individuals find ways to contribute to the betterment of the society in which they live.

IRVIN YALOM (b. 1931) was born of parents who immigrated from Russia shortly after World War I. During his early childhood, Yalom lived in the inner city of Washington, D.C., in a poor neigh- borhood. Life on the streets was perilous, and Yalom took refuge indoors reading novels and other works. Twice a week he made the hazardous bicycle trek to the library to stock up on reading supplies.

He found an alternative and satisfying world in reading fiction, which was a

source of inspiration and wisdom to him.

Early in his life he decided that writing a novel was the very finest thing a person could do, and subsequently he has written several teaching novels.

Irvin Yalom is Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at the Stanford Univer- sity School of Medicine. A psychiatrist and author, Yalom has been a major figure in the field of group psychotherapy since publication in 1970 of his influen- tial book The Theory and Practice of Group Rollo May

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Irvin Yalom

Gerald Corey

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Introduction

Existential therapy is more a way of thinking, or an attitude about psycho- LO1 therapy, than a particular style of practicing psychotherapy. It is neither an inde- pendent or separate school of therapy, nor is it a clearly defined model with specific techniques. Existential therapy can best be described as a philosophical approach that influences a counselor’s therapeutic practice.

Existential psychotherapy is an attitude toward human suffering and has no manual. It asks deep questions about the nature of the human being and the nature of anxiety, despair, grief, loneliness, isolation, and anomie. It also deals centrally with the questions of meaning, creativity, and love. (Yalom & Josselson, 2014, p. 265)

Existential therapy focuses on exploring themes such as mortality, meaning, freedom, responsibility, anxiety, and aloneness as these relate to a person’s current struggle. The goal of existential therapy is to assist clients in their exploration of the existential “givens of life,” how these are sometimes ignored or denied, and how addressing them can ultimately lead to a deeper, more reflective and meaningful existence. Clients are invited to reflect on life, to recognize their range of alternatives, and to decide among them. Existential therapy is grounded on the assumption that we are free and therefore responsible for our choices and actions. We are the authors Psychotherapy (1970/2005b), which has been trans-

lated into 12 languages and is currently in its fifth edition. His pioneering work, Existential Psychotherapy, written in 1980, is a classic and authoritative textbook on existential therapy. A contemporary existential therapist in the United States, Yalom acknowledges the contributions of both European and American psychologists and psychiatrists to the development of existential thinking and practice. Drawing on his clinical experience and on empirical research, philosophy, and literature, Yalom developed an existential approach to psychotherapy that addresses four

“givens of existence,” or ultimate human concerns:

freedom and responsibility, existential isolation, meaninglessness, and death. These existential themes deal with the client’s existence, or being-in-the-world.

Yalom believes the vast majority of experienced therapists, regardless of their theoretical orientation, address these core existential themes. How we address these existential themes greatly influences the design and quality of our lives.

Psychotherapy has been endlessly intriguing for Yalom, who has approached all of his patients with

a sense of wonderment at the stories they reveal. He believes that a different therapy must be designed for each client because each has a unique story. He advocates using the here and now of the therapeutic relationship to explore the client’s interpersonal world, and believes the therapist must be transpar- ent, especially regarding his or her experience of the client. His basic philosophy is existential and interpersonal, which he applies to both individual and group therapy.

Irvin Yalom has authored many stories and novels related to psychotherapy, including Love’s Executioner (1987), When Nietzsche Wept (1992), Lying on the Couch (1997), Momma and the Meaning of Life (2000), and The Schopenhauer Cure (2005a). His 2008 nonfiction book, Staring at the Sun: Overcoming the Terror of Death, is a treatise on the role of death anxiety in psychotherapy, illustrating how death and the meaning of life are foundational themes associated with in-depth therapeutic work. Yalom’s works, translated into more than 20 languages, have been widely read by therapists and laypeople alike.

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of our lives, and we design the pathways we follow. This chapter addresses some of the existential concepts and themes that have significant implications for the existentially oriented practitioner.

A basic existential premise is that we are not victims of circumstance because, to a large extent, we are what we choose to be. Once clients begin the process of recognizing the ways in which they have passively accepted circumstances and surrendered control, they can start down a path of consciously shaping their own lives. The first step in the therapeutic journey is for clients to accept responsibility.

As Yalom (2003) puts it, “Once individuals recognize their role in creating their own life predicament, they also realize that they, and only they, have the power to change that situation” (p. 141). The aim of existential therapy is to invite clients to explore their values and beliefs and take action that grows out of this honest appraisal of their life’s purpose. The therapist’s basic task is to encourage clients to consider what they are most serious about so they can pursue a direction in life (Deurzen, 2012).

Visit CengageBrain.com or watch the DVD for the video program on Chapter 6, Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Case of Stan and Lecturettes. I suggest that you view the brief lecture for each chapter prior to reading the chapter.

Historical Background in Philosophy and Existentialism

Many streams of thought contributed to the existential therapy movement in the 1940s and 1950s, and it arose spontaneously in different parts of Europe and among different schools of psychology and psychiatry. Many Europeans found that their lives had been devastated by World War II, and they struggled with existential issues including feelings of isolation, alienation, and meaninglessness. Early writers focused on the individual’s experience of being alone in the world and facing the anxiety of this situation. The European existential perspective focused on human limitations and the tragic dimensions of life (Sharp &

Bugental, 2001).

The thinking of existential psychologists and psychiatrists was influenced by a number of philosophers and writers during the 19th century. To understand the philosophical underpinnings of modern existential psychotherapy, one must have some awareness of the cultural, philosophical, and religious writings of Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Martin Buber. These major figures of existentialism and existential phenomenology pro- vided the basis for the formation of existential therapy. Ludwig Binswanger and Medard Boss were also early existential psychoanalysts who contributed key ideas to existential psychotherapy. Acknowledging the influence of these early philosophers, Yalom found that each contributed significant themes that guided his own thinking:

From Kierkegaard: creative anxiety, despair, fear and dread, guilt, and nothingness

From Nietzsche: death, suicide, and will

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From Heidegger: authentic being, caring, death, guilt, individual responsibility, and isolation

From Sartre: meaninglessness, responsibility, and choice

From Buber: interpersonal relationships, I/Thou perspective in therapy, and self-transcendence

Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) A Danish philosopher and Christian theologian, Kierkegaard was particularly concerned with angst—a Danish and German word whose meaning lies between the English words dread and anxiety—and he addressed the role of anxiety and uncertainty in life. Existential anxiety is associated with making basic decisions about how we want to live, and it is not pathological.

Kierkegaard believed that anxiety is the school in which we are educated to be a self.

Without the experience of angst, we may go through life as sleepwalkers. But many of us, especially in adolescence, are awakened into real life by a terrible uneasiness.

Life is one contingency after another, with no guarantees beyond the certainty of death. This is by no means a comfortable state, but it is necessary to our becoming human. Kierkegaard believed that “the sickness unto death” arises when we are not true to ourselves. What is needed is the willingness to risk a leap of faith in making choices. Becoming human is a project, and our task is not so much to discover who we are as to create ourselves.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) The German philosopher Nietzsche is the iconoclastic counterpart to Kierkegaard, expressing a revolutionary approach to the self, to ethics, and to society. Like Kierkegaard, he emphasized the importance of subjectivity. Nietzsche set out to prove that the ancient definition of humans as rational was entirely misleading. We are far more creatures of will than we are impersonal intellects. But where Kierkegaard emphasized the “subjective truth”

of an intense concern with God, Nietzsche located values within the individual’s

“will to power.” We give up an honest acknowledgment of this source of value when society invites us to rationalize powerlessness by advocating other worldly concerns.

If, like sheep, we acquiesce in “herd morality,” we will be nothing but mediocrities.

But if we release ourselves by giving free rein to our will to power, we will tap our potentiality for creativity and originality. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, with their pioneering analyses of anxiety, depression, subjectivity, and the authentic self, together are generally considered to be the originators of the existential perspective (Sharp & Bugental, 2001).

Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) Heidegger’s phenomenological existentialism reminds us that we exist “in the world” and should not try to think of ourselves as beings apart from the world into which we are thrown. The way we fill our everyday life with superficial conversation and routine shows that we often assume we are going to live forever and can afford to waste day after day. Our moods and feelings (including anxiety about death) are a way of understanding whether we are living authentically or whether we are inauthentically constructing our life around the expectations of others. When we translate this wisdom from vague feeling to explicit awareness, we may develop a more positive resolve about how we want to be. Phenomenological existentialism, as presented by Heidegger, provides a view of

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Dalam dokumen Gerald Corey - Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy-Brooks Cole (2016) (Halaman 152-186)