autonomy empowerment
history nurse
FIGURE1-2Through consultation and exchange of informa- tion, nurses demonstrate their roles as autonomous professio- nals. How important are the qualities of autonomy and empowerment to a nurse’s career goals?DELMAR/CENGAGE LEARNING
FIGURE1-1Graduating class (1900) of Touro Infirmary Training School for NursesPHOTO COURTESY OF TOURO INFIRMARY ARCHIVES, NEW ORLEANS, LA
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ABLE1-1 Historical Events Influencing the Evolution of Nursing
DATE EVENT
4000BC Primitive societies
2000BC Babylonia and Assyria
800–600BC Health religions of India
700BC Greece: source of modern medical science
460BC Hippocrates
3BC Ireland: pre-Christian nursing
AD390 Fabiola: founded first hospital
390–407 Early Christianity, deaconesses
711 Field hospital with nursing, Spain
1100 Ambulatory clinics, Spain (Moslems)
1440 First Chairs of Medicine, Oxford and Cambridge
1522 Military nursing orders
1600–1752 Deterioration of hospitals and nursing
1633 Founded: Daughters of Charity
1820 Florence Nightingale born
1826 Kaiserwerth deaconesses reestablished
1837 First American college for women, Mount Holyoke
1841 Founded: Nursing Sisters of the Holy Cross
1848 Women’s Rights Convention, Seneca Falls, New York
1854–1856 Crimean War
1859 Nightingale’s Notes on Nursingpublished in England
1860 First Nightingale School of Nursing, St. Thomas’s Hospital, London 1861–1865 Civil War, United States
1863 Charter granted to the New England Hospital for Women, Boston
1871 New York State Training School for Nurses, Brooklyn Maternity, Brooklyn, New York
1872 New England Hospital for Women: 1-year program for nurses
America’s first trained nurse, Linda Richards
1873 First three Nightingale schools in United States: Bellevue (New York City), Connecticut, and Massachusetts General
1881 Founded: American Red Cross
1882 Founded: American Association of University Women
1888 Founded: International Council of Women (ICW)
Founded: National Council of Women (NCW)
1893 First Nurses’ Settlement House, New York City, founded by Lillian Wald and Mary Brewster
Founded: first American Nursing Society, American Society of Superintendents of Training Schools for Nurses (Superintendents’ Society)
1896 Founded: National Association of Colored Women
1896–1911 Founded: Nurses’ Associated Alumnae of the United States and Canada (Associated Alumnae)
1899 Founded: International Council of Nurses (ICN)
First postgraduate courses for nurses at Teachers College, Columbia University 1900 American Journal of Nursing (AJN)
1901–1912 Founded: American Federation of Nurses (Federation) Federation joined NCW and ICW
1903 New York: efforts failed to pass a nurse licensing law North Carolina: passed first state nurse registration law Founded: Army Nurse Corps
1905 Federation withdrew from NCW and joined ICN
1908 National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses (NACGN)
Founded: Navy Nurse Corps
1909 Founded: first 3-year diploma school in a university setting at University of Minnesota
1910 Flexner report
1911 Founded: American Nurses Association (ANA), formerly the Associated Alumnae
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DATE EVENT
1912 Founded: National Organization of Public Health Nursing (NOPHN)
Founded: National League of Nursing Education (NLN), formerly the Superintendents’ Society ANA represented American nurses at ICN
Nutting report:Educational Status of Nursing Developments in preventive medicine
Founded: Town and Country Rural Nursing Service
1913 Founded: National Women’s Party
1916 Founded: National Association of Deans of Women
1920 Founded: National League of Women Voters
Congress passed the federal suffrage amendment
1920s Depression: social programs and health insurance
First prepaid medical plan, Pacific Northwest Founded: Bureaus of Medical Services Hospitals offered a prepaid plan Baylor Plan (prototype of Blue Cross) Goldmark report
1921 Women earned right to vote
1922 Studies of institutional nursing
1923 Studies of nursing education
Founded: Yale University School of Nursing
1926 Burgess report
1933 American Hospital Association endorsed Blue Cross
1938 American Medical Association endorsed Blue Shield
Economic Security Program for Nurses
1940 Cost studies of nursing education and service
1943 Founded: Federal Cadet Nurse Corps
1948 Brown report:Future of Nursing
1953 U.S. Public Health Services Studies in Nursing Education 1955 Practical Nursing (Title III) Health Amendment Act
1956 Hughes study:20,000 Nurses Tell Their Stories
1960s Created: Medicare and Medicaid
1961 Surgeon General’s Consultant Group
1964 Nurse Training Act
1965 First nurse practitioner program, pediatric
ANA position paper on entry into practice
1966 Educational opportunity grants for nurses
1970 Secretary’s commission to study extended roles for nurses
1973 Health Maintenance Organization Act
1977 Rural Health Clinic Service Act
National Commission for Manpower Policy Study
1979 U.S. surgeon general report:Healthy People
1980 Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act
1982 Budget cut to Health Maintenance Organization Act
Tax Equity Fiscal Responsibility Act (TEFRA)
1983 Institute of Medicine Committee on Nursing and Nursing Education study
1987 Secretary’s Commission on Nursing
1990s Health care reform
1991 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Healthy People 2000
1997 Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, now known as the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, established 12 evidence-based practice centers
2000 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Healthy People 2010 2008 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services’ ‘‘Never Events’’
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ABLE1-1 (Continued)
The first nurse to be recorded in history is Deborah. Deborah, referred to as a nurse, accompanied Rebekah when she left home to marry Isaac (Holy Bible, Gen. 24). In 2000BC, the use of wet nurses is recorded in Babylonia and Assyria.
The ancient Greeks built temples to honor Hygiea, the goddess of health. These temples were more like health spas rather than hospitals in that they were religious institutions governed by priests. Priestesses (who were not nurses) attended to those housed in the temples. The nursing that was done by women was performed in the home.
Around 500 BC, Gautama, later known as Buddha, was born in India. Buddha founded many religious orders that later supported King Asoka in the establishment of homes that provided care. The basic nursing care was provided by male nurses.
The spread of Christianity had a profound influence upon nursing. The followers of Jesus spread Christianity throughout the entire world, and men and women who were committed to love of both the church and the poor and infirm dedicated their lives to caring for the ill.
Hospitals were first established in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. St. Jerome was responsible, through one of his disciples, Fabiola, for introducing hospitals in the West. Western hospitals were primarily religious and charita- ble institutions housed in monasteries and convents. The caregivers had no formal training in therapeutic modalities and volunteered their time to nurse the sick.
The fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD ushered in the Middles Ages, or medieval period (500–1450AD), which was characterized by the growth of the Christian church. The Crusaders and religious orders traveled throughout Europe and the Near East with the mission of civilization and con- version. Because of their travels, commercial trade flourished and industries were developed to provide for trade in the world market. Universities were established, and monasteries provided impetus and leadership for the restructuring of the Western world.
Hospitals in large Byzantine cities were staffed primarily by paid male assistants and male nurses. During the medieval era, these hospitals were established primarily as almshouses, with care of the sick being secondary.
Medical practices in Western Europe remained basically unchanged until the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when formal medical education for physicians was required in a university setting. Although there were not enough physi- cians to care for all the sick, other caregivers were not required to receive any formal training. The dominant care- givers in the Byzantine setting were men; however, this was not true in the rural parts of the Eastern Roman Empire and in the West. In these societies, nursing was viewed as a natu- ral nurturing job for women.
During the Renaissance (1400–1550AD), interest in the arts and sciences emerged. This was also the time of many geographic explorations by Europeans. As a result, the world literally expanded.
Because of renewed interest in science, universities were established, but no formal nursing schools were founded.
Because of social status and customs, women were not
encouraged to leave their homes; they continued to fulfill the traditional role of nurturer and caregiver in the home.
The Industrial Revolution introduced technology that led to a proliferation of factories. Conditions for the factory workers were deplorable. Long hours, grueling work, and unsafe conditions prevailed in the workplace. The health sta- tus of laborers received little, if any, attention.
Medical schools were founded, including the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons in London in 1800. In France, men who were barbers also functioned as surgeons by performing pro- cedures such as leeching, giving enemas, and extracting teeth.
At the end of the eighteenth century, there were no stand- ards for nurses who worked in hospitals. In the early to mid- 1800s, nursing was considered unseemly for women even though some hospitals (almshouses) relied on women to make beds, scrub floors, and bathe the poor. Most nursing care was still performed in the home by female relatives of the ill.