THE PROJECT MANAGER AND LEADERSHIP
5.6 LEADERSHIP
The headline of an article in a newspaper on computers suggested that the purchase by Loral of IBM’s federal operations raised “leadership questions.”
This headline echoed what has become a critical issue for many of our or- ganizations and enterprises—that of leadership. Whereas not too many years ago, corporate executives were under close scrutiny for their management skills, or lack thereof, today the key word is leadership. There is little ques- tion, therefore, that a great deal of attention has been focused on the top management, in both government and industry, having the requisite leader- ship attributes. Some of that focus, indeed, is seeping downward into the domain of the Project Manager and the Chief Systems Engineer. Companies are looking for people who are not only outstanding managers, but are leaders as well. The conventional wisdom is that leaders are a small “subset” of good managers; leaders have extra qualities that transcend the skills of even the best manager.
From experience, leaders are not necessarily born to such a capability, but can be taught and can grow into leaders. For the PM or CSE who has achieved a high level of competence in this type of position, and who aspires to become
a leader at the project and ultimately at higher levels in an organization, we add this short perspective on leadership.
5.6.1 Situational Leadership
One of the well-accepted models of leadership is the so-called “situational”
leadership paradigm [5.8]. The premise of this model is fundamentally that leaders choose or select a leadership “style” that depends upon the situation in which they find themselves. The situations are characterized by two basic behavior dimensions, namely, (1) task or directive behavior, and (2) relation- ship or supportive behavior. In both cases, the leader correctly perceives the situation and modifies behavior to suit the circumstances.
If we form a scale from low to high for both task and relationship behavior, we can visualize the following four situations that describe the fundamentals of the situational leadership model:
Situation 1 (SI): High task, low relationship Situation 2 (S2): High task, high relationship Situation 3 (S3): High relationship, low task Situation 4 (S4): Low relationship, low task
For SI, there is a high need to direct the behavior of subordinates, who generally are characterized by a low level of maturity. At the same time, the situation does not call necessarily for a close or supportive relationship during the execution of the work. In this type of situation, the leader is “telling” the followers what has to be done and is closely supervising the work as it is being performed. The argument is that the leader is selecting this mode of behavior because that is what is called for in this type of situation.
In situation 2 (S2), the task behavior is also high (follower maturity is low), but there is a high need for relationship and supportive behavior. In such a case, also recognized by the leader, he or she is “selling” by making sure that decisions are understood and that all questions are appropriately answered.
The followers need to be “sold,” so to speak, partly because they are not mature and partly because they require close contact with the leader.
In the third situation (S3), relationship and supporting behavior remains high, but the task behavior is low (maturity of follower is high). Here the leader is “participating” with the subordinates by sharing ideas and encouraging inputs and ideas to facilitate the decision-making process. The leader and followers are more in a collaborative type of relationship, with each making distinct progress through such an interaction.
Finally, in the last situation (S4), both the relationship (supporting) and task (directive) behaviors are low and the follower level of maturity is high. Here the leader is “delegating” a great deal of responsibility to the
subordinates, feeling confident that they are capable of carrying out the var- ious required tasks without much supervision. The leader is more of an observer and monitor, and the followers have the skills and perspectives for almost independent progress.
This situational model, then, is characterized by a conscious change of behavior on the part of the leader, adapting a leadership style that is tuned to the situation at hand. If the followers are not homogeneous in their capabilities and needs, the leader treats certain of them in one way (e.g., telling) and others in another way (e.g., delegating). In summary, the leader assumes the following roles for the four situations:
r Telling (SI) r Selling (S2) r Participating (S3) r Delegating (S4)
We note that there is little emphasis, in this model, on the specificattributes of the leader. The qualities or traits of a leader are basically not addressed, other than that he or she is able to perceive situations and modify behavior in response to these situations. The following section explores the matter of the characteristics of a leader.
5.6.2 The Attributes of a Leader
There have been numerous investigations of the attributes of a leader. Indeed, this has been the main thrust of recent analyses of the leader and how he or she behaves. In broad terms, these explorations have taken two interrelated tacks. One has been to examine known leaders and to see how they tend to behave and what their personal characteristics are or have been. The other has looked at the demands placed on the leader, functioning in all domains (i.e., industry, government, academia).
In a survey of more than two dozen sources [5.9], some of the documented leadership investigations that have defined requisite leadership attributes have been summarized. The results are listed in Exhibit 5.3, with the order going from most to least important.
The attributes listed in the top seven all had different scores with a natural breakpoint between numbers 4 and 5. The most critical attribute, from the ex- hibit, was outer-directed and dealt with empowering, supporting, motivating, and trusting others. The issue of having a vision, so dominant in the news, scored number 2. The third most critical attribute was cooperating, sharing, team building, and team playing. This is distinctly opposite to some of the competitive behavior that we see in enterprises today, much of which is de- structive and leads to burnout. Also, we note that such a leader is not only able to build a team, but can function easily as part of someone else’s team
Exhibit 5.3: Results of Survey of Leadership Attributes Critical Attributes
1. Empowering, supporting, motivating, trusting 2. Having a vision, long-term viewpoint
3. Cooperating, sharing, team playing, and team building 4. Renewing, learning, growing, educating
Extremely Important Attributes 5. Being communicative
6. Having culture and values, serving as a role model 7. Being productive, efficient, determined
Significant Attributes
8. Demonstrating time management, prioritization 9. Being action-oriented
10. Making a contribution, commitment, legacy 11. Being innovative, imaginative
12. Having integrity, morality, humanity 13. Demonstrating skill, knowledge, substance
(if that someone else is also a leader). Rounding out the critical attributes is that of renewing, learning, growing, and educating. Such a leader is dedicated to individual as well as corporate growth, believing that without a constant renewal process, the organization will stagnate and ultimately fail.
In the second category of extremely important attributes, the list is led by the communicative leader. We stressed the importance of this characteristic and have more to say about it as well in the next chapter. Inculcating a culture and value system is next on the list. Many organizations take on the mantle of the culture supported by a strong leader (e.g., Tom Watson at IBM, Henry Ford at Ford Motor Company, Bill Gates at Microsoft). The culture is usually reflected in the personal behavior of the leader serving as a role model. Finally, and completing this category, the leader is productive, efficient, and determined. Many leaders, through their constant doggedness and determination, are able to achieve their desired results for themselves as well as their organizations. They do not allow themselves to be stopped by obstacles and initial setbacks.
There are six attributes in the significant category. Having the ability to prioritize and manage their time heads this list. Next, the leader is action- oriented, preferring to move ahead even when it may be an errant direction.
Such a leader is able to make mistakes, learn from them, and retrace steps, if necessary. Next, the leader has a sense of the contribution that all are making to the overall well-being of the organization. Such a leader is committed to the enterprise and wishes to leave a legacy and mark on the organization.
The leader is also innovative and imaginative and is able to try new modes of behavior, even if he or she is not the originator of the new idea. Number
12 on the list is having a definitive and positive sense of integrity, morality, and humanity. Many despotic “leaders,” especially those who have led their countries down destructive paths for themselves and others, would fail this test of leadership. Finally, and curiously last on the list of thirteen, the leader has the skills, knowledge, and substance in the domain of the enterprise, whether it be business, engineering, politics, or some other arena.
Another more recent exploration by this author [5.10] of the attributes of leaders examined the writings of twenty-four investigators of this topic.
The overall conclusion was the set of five attributes listed below as the most significant.
Exhibit 5.4 Additional Selected Attributes of Leaders [5.10]
r Practical visionary r Inclusive communicator r Positive doer
r Renewing facilitator r Principled integrator
The practical visionary is able to focus upon distant goals, but does not have his or her head in the clouds. The inclusive communicator has the critical skill of being able to communicate, and makes sure that everyone is and feels part of the team. The positive doer maintains a positive attitude in the face of all kinds of obstacles, and keeps moving forward, accomplishing real things in the real world. The renewing facilitator helps other members of the team reach their goals, crossing bridges as necessary from the old to the new. Finally, the principled integrator is able to synthesize important pieces to construct the whole, maintaining an ethical perspective from beginning to end.
The reader with a further interest in the attributes of a leader can refer especially to the two sources cited in this section [5.9, 5.10] as well as to other significant sources [5.11, 5.12, 5.13, 5.14, 5.15].
5.6.3 The Project Manager as Leader
One might argue that requiring the PM and the CSE to be leaders, in the previous context, is somewhat of a stretch. However, the PM and the CSE are de facto leaders of their respective project teams. They may function well or they may function poorly in these capacities. The objective is to try to grow so that they can become leaders in the full sense of the word.
This requires an understanding of what leadership means and a clear and determined receptivity to leadership ways of being and behaving. An abstraction of leadership attributes in terms of the Project Manager and Chief
Systems Engineer perspectives is cited Exhibit 5.5, using the notion and mnemonic of remaining receptive to what it might take in terms of changes in behavior and ways of interacting that require close examination.
Exhibit 5.5: A Leadership Mnemonic for the PM and CSE R: Results and process-oriented
E: Encourages positive change C: Communicates
E: Empathizes and trusts P: People developer T: Team builder
I: Integrates and synthesizes V: Visionary
E: Exhibits a can-do attitude
Keeping the attributes of a true leader in focus at all times gives the PM and the CSE opportunities to grow from simply being a manager into becoming a leader. This goal is within the grasp of the receptive person who can embrace and deal with internal and external change and growth processes.
QUESTIONS/EXERCISES
5.1 Develop a score for a Project Manager you have worked for using the format of Table 5.1.
5.2 Develop a score for yourself as a Project Manager using the format of Table 5.1.
5.3 Make an educated guess at the Myers–Briggs profile for your boss.
Do the same for yourself. What might this suggest in terms of your relationship with your boss?
5.4 Repeat the preceding exercise for the action-people-process-idea as- sessment.
5.5 Fill in the blanks in Table 5.3. Discuss the results.
5.6 Evaluate your boss in terms of the cited critical leadership attributes in Exhibit 5.3. Do the same for yourself. Then evaluate your boss in terms of the five leadership attributes listed in Exhibit 5.4. Do the same for yourself.
5.7 Construct your own “top five” list of leadership attributes that you believe are the most important for success as a Project Manager. Explain your choices for this list.
5.8 Examine the three aspects of psychological decision theory shown in the text of this chapter and for each of them cite an example of how it might apply to managing a project.
5.9 Develop a score for your best “subordinate” using the format of Table 5.2.
5.10 Identify six of your own attributes that you believe might help you continue to assume leadership positions in your company or enterprise.
Note “why” for each of the six.
REFERENCES
5.1 Zimmerer, T., and M. Yasin (1998). “ A Leadership Profile of American Project Man- agers,”IEEE Engineering Management Review(Winter).
5.2 Myers, I. Briggs, with P. B. Myers (1980).Gifts Differing. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
5.3 Keirsey, D., and M. Bates (1978).Please Understand Me. Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis Books.
5.4 Frame, J. D. (1987).Managing Projects in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
5.5 Casse, P. (1981).Communication: A Self-Assessment Exercise.Washington, DC: Interna- tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Economic Development Institute, and the World Bank.
5.6 Kahneman, D., P. Slovic, and A. Tversky, eds. (1982).Judgment Under Unceratinty:
Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
5.7 Bramson, R. M. (1981).Coping with Difficult People. New York: Ballantine Books.
5.8 Mersey, P., and K. Blanchard (1977).Management of Organizational Behavior Utilizing Group Resources, 3rd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
5.9 Eisner, H. (1993).Leadership Imperatives: Do They Support Creativity and Innovation?
Paper read at the American Society for Engineering Management (ASEM) 1993 Annual Conference, Dallas, October 22–25.
5.10 Eisner, H. (2000).Reengineering Yourself and Your Company: From Engineer to Man- ager to Leader. Norwood, MA: Artech House.
5.11 Maccoby, M. (1981).The Leader. New York: Simon and Schuster.
5.12 Bennis, W., and B. Nanus (1985).Leaders. New York: Harper & Row.
5.13 Leavitt, H. J. (1986).Corporate Pathfinders. New York: Viking.
5.14 Zaleznik, A. (1989).The Managerial Mystique: Restoring Leadership in Business. New York: Harper & Row.
5.15 Gardner, J. (1990).On Leadership. New York: The Free Press.