157 Major Themes in the Gospel of Luke an overture is appropriate: the reader hears snippets of everything that is to come, presented in an especially engaging and artistic fashion; then, as the story unfolds, these themes are reintroduced and developed more fully.
When we look at the rest of Luke’s Gospel (chaps. 3–24), it becomes ap- parent that the story follows the same basic outline as the Gospel of Mark.
As a general rule, Luke seems to have taken over the narrative structure of Mark’s Gospel and inserted other material (i.e., from the Q source and from the miscellaneous other sources that we call “L”) into that framework at two key junctures:
Luke 3:1–6:19 draws primarily from Mark Luke 6:20–8:3 draws primarily from Q Luke 8:4–9:50 draws primarily from Mark
Luke 9:51–18:14 draws primarily from Q and L (interwoven) Luke 18:15–24:7 draws primarily from Mark
Thus, the Markan story of Jesus is “interrupted” by two relatively long sec- tions largely devoted to the teaching of Jesus. The first of these (Luke 6:20–8:3) includes what is known as the Sermon on the Plain (Luke 6:20–49), teaching material from Q that corresponds closely to what is found in Matthew’s much longer Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7). But most of the material from Q has been interwoven with material that is unique to Luke in order to be presented as part of a very long section of Luke’s Gospel known as the Journey to Je- rusalem (9:51–19:40). This journey functions as a literary device, such that much of the teaching of Jesus and many of Luke’s unique stories concerning him are presented within the context of traveling, and specifically, traveling to Jerusalem (with some anticipation of all that will happen there: crucifixion, resurrection, ascension, outpouring of the Spirit).
Finally, we should note that the Gospel of Luke is the only one of the four Gospels that has a sequel. Luke also wrote the book of Acts, and most scholars believe that he intended the two works to be read together. Some of the ma- terial in Luke’s Gospel might be intended to prepare the readers for what is to come in the second volume.
Major Themes in the Gospel of luke
includes several liturgical hymns (1:46–55, 67–79; 2:14, 29–32). All told, there are twenty references in Luke to people worshiping or giving thanks to God (1:46, 64; 2:13, 20, 28, 37; 4:15; 5:25, 26; 7:16; 13:13; 17:15, 16; 18:11; 18:43 [twice];
19:37; 23:47; 24:52, 53). This is far more than can be found in any of the other Gospels. Furthermore, only Luke contains a story scolding people for failing to give thanks (17:11–19), and only Luke presents the death of Jesus on the cross as an occasion for people to glorify God (23:47; cf. John 12:28). Likewise, Jesus prays far more often in this Gospel than in any of the others. Prayer is specifi- cally mentioned in association with Jesus’ baptism (3:21) and transfiguration (9:28), and Jesus’ relationship with his disciples is governed by prayer: he prays before he chooses them (6:12), before he questions them about his identity (9:18), and before he predicts Peter’s denial (22:32). And, it is only in this Gospel that Jesus’ disciples ask him to teach them to pray (11:1). He does so not only by teaching them the Lord’s Prayer (11:2–4)—found also in Matthew 6:9–13—but also through frequent encouragements to pray (18:1; 21:36; 22:40) and through parables about prayer not found anywhere else (11:5–8; 18:1–8, 9–14).
Food
Many readers have noted a prominent “food motif” in the Gospel of Luke (and in the book of Acts as well). Luke mentions nineteen meals, thirteen of which are peculiar to his Gospel. Jesus frequently is portrayed as being present at meals (e.g., 5:29; 7:36; 14:1; 22:14; 24:30), and he gets criticized for eating too much (“a glutton and a drunkard” [7:34; cf. 5:33]) and for eating with the wrong
hyperlink 7.7 Box 7.4
Male/Female Parallels in the Gospel of Luke
Male Female
1:5–25 annunciation to Zechariah 1:26–38 annunciation to Mary
1:67–79 song of Zechariah 1:46–56 song of Mary
2:25–35 prophecy of Simeon 2:36–38 prophecy of Anna
4:27 man from Syria 4:25–26 woman from Sidon
4:31–37 demon in man rebuked 4:38 fever in woman rebuked
5:19–26 desperate man forgiven 7:35–50 desperate woman forgiven 6:12–16 list of male followers 8:1–3 list of female followers 7:1–10 man’s servant saved from death 7:11–17 widow’s son saved from death
11:32 men of Nineveh 11:31 queen of the South
13:18–19 man with a mustard seed 13:20–21 woman with yeast 14:1–4 man healed on Sabbath 13:10–17 woman healed on Sabbath
15:4–7 man loses a sheep 15:8–10 woman loses a coin
17:34 two men asleep 17:35 two women at mill
159 Major Themes in the Gospel of Luke people (tax collectors and sinners [5:30; 15:1–2]). Banquets figure prominently in his parables and teaching also, as he offers what on the surface appears to be instructions in social etiquette (7:44–46; 12:35–37; 14:7–24; 22:26–27). What might be the purpose of such a theme? In a general sense, meals often symbolize nourishment and celebration, and in Luke’s Gospel, meals are depicted as occa- sions for healing (9:11–17), hospitality (10:5–7), fellowship (13:29), forgiveness (7:36–50), prophetic teaching (11:37–54), and reconciliation (15:23; 24:30–35).
We also know that Christians in the early church met regularly for meals (Acts 2:42, 46), and thus many scholars think that Luke’s use of food imagery might be meant to establish connections between his Gospel stories and Christian gatherings in his own day: what happens at meals in this Gospel corresponds to what can or should happen “at church.”
Ministry to the Excluded or Disadvantaged
Luke’s Gospel shows special concern for outcasts, for victims of oppression, and for others who appear to be at a disadvantage in society.
Its genealogy traces Jesus’ lineage back to Adam in order to emphasize his connection with all humanity (3:23–38). Jesus challenges parochial attitudes that would limit God’s care or blessings to any particular group or nation (4:24–27;
cf. 2:32; 3:6, 8), and he insists that the gospel proclaimed in his name be a mes- sage of hope for all people (24:47; cf. 2:32). Within this inclusive paradigm, those who might be despised or simply overlooked receive special attention. Thus, we find an abundance of unique material in Luke that challenges prejudicial attitudes toward Samaritans (9:51–56; 10:29–37; 17:11–19) or tax collectors (15:1–2; 18:9–14; 19:1–10; also 5:27–32; 7:34).
This concern for the excluded may also explain the prominence of women in Luke’s Gospel. There are numerous stories involving female characters (1:26–66;
2:36–38; 7:11–17, 36–50; 8:1–3, 42–48; 10:38–42; 11:27–28; 21:1–4; 23:27–31;
23:55–24:11), and Luke seems to go out of his way to include parallel references that demonstrate how Jesus’ words and deeds apply to men and women alike (e.g., 15:4–10). A close connection is further established between “women and the word” in this Gospel: Mary the mother of Jesus is lauded three times on account of her faithfulness to the word (1:45; 8:21; 11:27–28; cf. 1:38); likewise, Mary the sister of Martha is defended and praised by Jesus for her decision to listen to his word (10:39, 42).
Luke’s prevailing concern, however, is for “the poor,” a category of people that seems to refer primarily to those who are economically deprived (though people might be regarded as poor in other ways as well—e.g., lacking honor or prestige or power). Jesus says in his inaugural sermon that the purpose of his ministry is “to bring good news to the poor” and “to let the oppressed go
hyperlink 7.8
free” (4:18; cf. 7:22). The poor and the oppressed are one and the same, for in this Gospel poverty is viewed as a consequence of injustice: the poor have too little because others have too much. Thus, Luke’s concern for the poor is accompanied by hostility toward the rich: God will provide the hungry with good things but will send the rich away empty (1:53); the poor are blessed (6:20–21), but the rich are doomed (6:24–25). In his parables, Jesus depicts
Fig. 7.4. Women in Luke. Luke reports that many women followed Jesus, including Mary Magdalene, Joanna (the wife of Herod’s steward Chuza), and Susanna (8:1–3). (Bridgeman Art Library)
161 Major Themes in the Gospel of Luke the rich as fools who think that the essence of life is to be found in material possessions (12:16–21), or, worse, as persons destined to suffer eternal agony while the poor receive their comfort (16:19–31). God’s kingdom brings a re- versal of values and calls for a reversal of commitments (16:13–15). In this life, those who are faithful to God will divest themselves of material possessions (12:33; 14:33; 18:22) and will be generous in helping the poor (3:11; 14:13;
18:22; 19:8); in the life to come the poor are the ones who will be supremely blessed (6:20; 14:21; 16:22).
Diverse Images for Jesus
Scholars have long noted that Luke’s Gospel employs many different titles for Jesus and uses images for understanding Jesus drawn from both the Jewish and the Greco-Roman worlds. Luke is not the only New Testament author to do this, but his diversity of models is impressive and intriguing. First, he wants to identify Jesus as the one who fulfills the expectations of Jewish religion based on many different passages in the Hebrew scriptures (Luke 24:27; cf. 24:44): he is the Messiah (Luke 9:20), the Son of Man (22:69; cf. Acts 7:56), the prophet like Moses (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the servant of the Lord (22:37; cf. Acts 8:30–35), and (probably) the returned Elijah (cf. 7:11–17 with 1 Kings 17:17–24, and 24:50–51 with 2 Kings 2:9–10; see Mal. 4:5).
Beyond this, Luke also seems to draw upon a number of pagan images from the Greco-Roman world. His portrayal of Jesus has much in common with Hellenistic portrayals of philosophers, public benefactors, and figures known to Roman readers from Greek mythology. Of course, Luke believes that Jesus is more than just a philosopher or benefactor, and he clearly indicates that Jesus is a historical person not a mythological one. Still, people familiar with the Hel- lenistic literature of the Greco-Roman world probably would have recognized some contact points that would enable them to connect Luke’s story of Jesus with certain things that they already knew: they might recognize that Luke’s Jesus is something like a philosopher or a benefactor, or one of the immortals from their myths (e.g., Hercules or Prometheus). Thus, Luke seems inclined to provide his readers with a variety of entry points for obtaining a partial (if ultimately inadequate) understanding of who Jesus is.
Present Availability of Salvation
Luke emphasizes salvation as a reality to be experienced here and now. We may see this, for instance, in his repeated use of the word today:
• “Today . . . a Savior is born” (2:11)
• “Today . . . this scripture is fulfilled” (4:21)
hyperlink 7.9
hyperlink 7.10
hyperlink 7.11
hyperlink 7.12
• “Today . . . salvation has come to this house” (19:10)
See also Luke 5:26; 19:5. Of course, salvation has a future aspect as well. Thus, when Jesus speaks to a man who is about to die, he uses the same “today”
language to promise him life after death:
• “Today . . . you will be with me in Paradise” (23:43)
But most of the time Jesus is not talking to people who are facing an imminent death, and most of the time the focus of salvation in Luke’s Gospel is on the quality of life that God enables people to have in the present. Many scholars have said that Luke envisions salvation as primarily liberation (4:18). People need to be set free from certain things in order to experience life as God intends.
Some people are ill and need to be healed; others are possessed by demons and Box 7.5
Salvation in the Gospel of Luke
This chart lists the passages in Luke’s Gospel in which the words sōtēr (“savior”), sōtēria (“salvation”), sōtērion (“salvation”), or sōzein (“to save”) are used.
Verse Who Is to Be Saved?
Of What Does Salvation Consist?
Who or What Brings Salvation?
How Is Salvation Received?
1:47 Mary blessedness (1:42, 48) God faith (1:45)
1:69, 71 Israel rescue from enemies God ———
1:77 the Lord’s people forgiveness John (1:76) ———
2:11 shepherds peace (2:24) Christ ———
2:30 all people revelation, glory Jesus (1:27) ———
3:6 all flesh forgiveness (3:3) John baptism
6:9 man with infirmity healing word of Jesus ———
7:50 sinner (7:37) forgiveness word of Jesus faith
8:12 ones along the path ——— word of God faith
8:36 demoniac exorcism word of Jesus ———
8:48 woman with infirmity healing power of Jesus faith
8:50 Jairus’s daughter resuscitation word of Jesus faith
9:24 whoever ——— ——— self-denial
13:23 a few feasting in God’s reign ——— effort
17:19 leper being made clean Jesus faith
18:26 who? entering God’s reign God ———
18:42 blind man reception of sight word of Jesus faith
19:9, 10 Zacchaeus being a child of Abraham Jesus renunciation
163 Major Themes in the Gospel of Luke need to be exorcized. Luke’s Gospel uses the Greek word for “salvation” in describing what Jesus does for these people (e.g., 6:9; 8:36, 48, 50; 17:19; 18:42).
Likewise, when Jesus tells Zacchaeus that salvation has come to his house (19:9), his main point is probably not that Zacchaeus will go to heaven when he dies but rather that Zacchaeus has been set free from slavery to mammon and is now able to experience life as God intends.
This emphasis on the present aspect of salvation may explain what would otherwise be peculiarities of Luke’s Gospel. First, this Gospel seems to display a recognition that the parousia (second coming) of Jesus may not be immi- nent (12:38, 45; 19:11; 21:24); the book of Acts is evidence for this because, as the scholar Ernst Haenchen observed, “You do not write the history of the church if you are expecting the end of the world to come any day.” Thus, the eschatological urgency that characterizes Mark’s Gospel (see pp. 130–31) is muted here: Jesus is indeed coming back, but
maybe (probably?) not for a long time. This is also a shift away from the perspective of Paul (Rom. 16:20; 1 Cor. 7:29; Phil.
4:5) and other New Testament writers (Heb. 10:37; James 5:8;
Rev. 22:7, 12, 20) who seem to have assumed or at least hoped that Jesus would return within their own lifetimes. Luke has not abandoned that hope en- tirely, but, realistically, he seems to think that his readers are bet- ter served by “digging in for the long haul” and doing what they can to further God’s work here on earth (24:47). This reckon- ing with what some theologians call “the delay of the parousia”
is compatible with Luke’s em- phasis on present aspects of salvation: Christians should
Fig. 7.5. Ascension. Luke is the only Gospel writer to report Jesus’ ascen- sion into heaven, and he tells the story twice (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:6–11).
(Bridgeman Art Library)
experience the consequences and manifestations of God’s saving power here and now rather than simply waiting for Christ to rescue them from an imperfect world or longing for bliss in a life to come.
Another idiosyncrasy of Luke’s Gospel is that it never directly connects salvation to the death of Jesus on the cross. In this Gospel, Jesus does not refer to his death as “a ransom” (cf. Mark 10:45) or talk about his blood being
hyperlink 7.13
Fig. 7.6. Pathos. Luke tells the story of Jesus’ death with heart-rending emotion. His story of the passion presents Jesus as a heroic martyr and conveys a sort of “beautiful sadness” that arouses pity and promotes both repentance and praise (Luke 23:47–48). In this early twentieth-century rendering, a disciple (Mary Magdalene?) stands by the dead body of Jesus, whose halo is deco- rated with pretty embroidery. Even in death (or especially in death?) Jesus inspires devotion.
(Bridgeman Art Library)
165 Major Themes in the Gospel of Luke shed for the forgiveness of sins (cf. Matt. 26:28). No one ever calls Jesus “the Lamb of God,” likening his death to an atoning sacrifice (cf. John 1:29, 35).
Indeed, many scholars have observed that Jesus’ death is presented almost as a martyrdom in Luke’s Gospel, a noble but unfortunate occurrence that God quickly corrects through the resurrection. It is not quite that, for Luke does make clear that Jesus’ death is necessary (9:22, 44; 18:31; 24:7), that it accords with the will of God (22:42), and that it is somehow connected with the initia- tion of a new covenant (22:20). Still, he does not indicate why it is necessary, or how it accomplishes God’s will, or in what way it initiates a new covenant (or what that means). Scholars often assume that Luke is simply not interested in “doing theology” in this regard. But again, this aspect of Luke’s Gospel is compatible with his emphasis on present-day salvation: although Luke says almost nothing about how Jesus’ death provides salvation (in the sense of life after death), he says a great deal about how Jesus’ life provides salvation (in the sense of deliverance from current distress). In this Gospel, Jesus is born a savior (2:11; cf. Matt. 1:21), and he saves people throughout his life on earth. Jesus even says that the reason he has come is to seek out people needing salvation and save them (19:10)—that is, set them free from whatever is preventing them from experiencing life as God intends. Furthermore, he continues to do this throughout the book of Acts, where his name becomes a vehicle for bringing saving power to those in need (2:21; 3:6, 16; 4:12; 10:43; 22:16).
Other Themes—Developed Further in Acts
We may note briefly here three other themes in Luke’s Gospel that will be discussed further when we consider the book of Acts:
1. The city of Jerusalem receives considerable attention: Luke’s Gospel begins and ends there (1:5–8; 24:52–53); Luke records childhood visits by Jesus to Jerusalem (2:22–52), devotes ten chapters to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem (9:51–19:40), recounts Jesus weeping over the city (19:41–
44), relates stories of resurrection appearances in and around Jerusalem (24:1–43), and concludes with instructions for the disciples to stay in the city after Jesus leaves (24:44–49). See box 9.5 on page 205.
2. Luke’s Gospel emphasizes the work of the Holy Spirit more prominently than do the other Synoptic Gospels: people are filled with the Holy Spirit (1:15, 41, 67) and inspired by the Spirit (2:25–27); Jesus is conceived by the Spirit (1:35) and anointed with the Spirit (3:22; 4:1, 14, 18); Jesus says that God gives the Spirit to all who ask (11:13; cf. Matt. 7:11) and promises that his disciples will be clothed with the power of the Spirit (24:49).
3. Luke’s portrayal of the disciples of Jesus is considerably different from that of either Mark or Matthew: in many respects, the disciples are role
models for leaders in the church, people who stand by Jesus in his trials (22:28–30), and who exhibit potential to become his loyal representatives (6:40); they have problems, but in this Gospel the problems are more what would be associated with powerful or successful people than the foibles of persons struggling with doubt or little faith (9:49–57; 22:14–27).
Conclusion
We noted at the start that Luke’s Gospel has been a traditional favorite among both artists and historians. But what do theologians make of it? Many, quite frankly, are a little baffled by Luke’s lack of a discernible, systematic approach to theology. Luke has been called “muddle-headed” by frustrated scholars who think that he is more interested in recounting appealing stories or offering a panoply of memorable images than he is in outlining exactly what we are sup- posed to believe about a number of important subjects.
But Luke has his fans. Christians who are enamored of liturgy are drawn to this Gospel. Evangelists love its tales of individuals who make life-changing decisions in response to the transforming power of the gospel (e.g., 3:10–14;
5:8; 15:17–19; 19:1–10). Social activists prize its devotion to justice and its clear call to work on behalf of oppressed and marginalized people. Pietists value its focus on spirituality and attention to personal prayer. In the modern church,
For Further Reading
Borgman, Paul.
» The Way according to Luke: Hearing the Whole Story of Luke-Acts. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006.
Green, Joel B.
» The Theology of the Gospel of Luke. New Testament Theology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Parsons, Mikeal.
» Luke: Storyteller, Interpreter, Evangelist. Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson, 2007.
Powell, Mark Allan.
» What Are They Saying about Luke? Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1989.
Shillington, V. George.
» An Introduction to the Study of Luke-Acts. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 2007.
Talbert, Charles H.
» Reading Luke: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the Third Gospel. Rev. ed. Reading the New Testament Series. Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2002.
Tannehill, Robert C.
» Luke. Abingdon New Testament Commentaries. Nash- ville: Abingdon, 1996.