Writing Projects
2.2 Set Operations
2.2.5 Multisets
Sometimes the number of times that an element occurs in an unordered collection matters. A multiset(short for multiple-membership set) is an unordered collection of elements where an element can occur as a member more than once. We can use the same notation for a multiset as we do for a set, but each element is listed the number of times it occurs. (Recall that in a set, an element either belongs to a set or it does not. Listing it more than once does not affect the membership of this element in the set.) So, the multiset denoted by{a, a, a, b, b}is the multiset that contains the elementathrice and the elementbtwice. When we use this notation, it must be clear that we are working with multisets and not ordinary sets. We can avoid this ambiguity by using an alternate notation for multisets. The notation{m1⋅a1,m2⋅a2,…, mr⋅ar}denotes the multiset with elementa1 occurringm1 times, elementa2 occurringm2 times, and so on.
The numbersmi,i=1,2,…, r, are called themultiplicitiesof the elementsai,i=1,2,…, r.
(Elements not in a multiset are assigned 0 as their multiplicity in this set.) The cardinality of a multiset is defined to be the sum of the multiplicities of its elements. The wordmultisetwas introduced by Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn in the 1970s, but the concept dates back to the 12th century work of the Indian mathematician Bhaskaracharya.
LetPandQbe multisets. Theunionof the multisetsPandQis the multiset in which the multiplicity of an element is the maximum of its multiplicities inPandQ. TheintersectionofP andQis the multiset in which the multiplicity of an element is the minimum of its multiplicities inPandQ. ThedifferenceofPandQis the multiset in which the multiplicity of an element is the multiplicity of the element inPless its multiplicity inQunless this difference is negative, in which case the multiplicity is 0. ThesumofPandQis the multiset in which the multiplic- ity of an element is the sum of multiplicities inPandQ. The union, intersection, and differ- ence ofPandQare denoted byP∪Q,P∩Q, andP−Q, respectively (where these operations should not be confused with the analogous operations for sets). The sum ofPandQis denoted byP+Q.
EXAMPLE 21 Suppose thatPandQare the multisets{4⋅a,1⋅b,3⋅c}and{3⋅a,4⋅b,2⋅d}, respectively.
FindP∪Q,P∩Q,P−Q, andP+Q.
Solution:We have
P∪Q= {max(4,3)⋅a,max(1,4)⋅b,max(3,0)⋅c,max(0,2)⋅d}
= {4⋅a,4⋅b,3⋅c,2⋅d},
P∩Q= {min(4,3)⋅a,min(1,4)⋅b,min(3,0)⋅c,min(0,2)⋅d}
= {3⋅a,1⋅b,0⋅c,0⋅d} = {3⋅a,1⋅b},
Dinodia Photos/Alamyc Stock Photo
BHASKARACHARYA (1114–1185) Bhaskaracharya was born in Bijapur in the Indian state of Karnataka.
(Bhaskaracharya’s name was actually Bhaskara, but the title Acharya, which means teacher, was added honorif- Links
ically.) His father was a well-known scholar and a famous astrologer. Bhaskaracharya was head of the astronom- ical observatory at Ujjain, the leading Indian mathematical center of the day. He is considered to be the greatest mathematician of medieval India. Bhaskaracharya made discoveries in many parts of mathematics, including geometry, plane and spherical trigonometry, algebra, number theory, and combinatorics. Bhaskaracharya de- scribed the principles of differential calculus, which he applied to astronomical problems, predating the works of Newton and Leibniz by more than 500 years. In number theory he made many discoveries about Diophantine equations, the study of the solution in integers of equations, which were rediscovered more than 600 years later.
His greatest work is theCrown of Treatises(Siddhanta Shiromani), which includes four main parts, covering arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of the planets, and spheres.
P−Q= {max(4−3,0)⋅a,max(1−4,0)⋅b,max(3−0,0)⋅c,max(0−2,0)⋅d}
= {1⋅a,0⋅b,3⋅c,0⋅d} = {1⋅a,3⋅c}, and P+Q= {(4+3)⋅a,(1+4)⋅b,(3+0)⋅c,(0+2)⋅d}
= {7⋅a,5⋅b,3⋅c,2⋅d}.
◂
Exercises
1. LetAbe the set of students who live within one mile of school and letBbe the set of students who walk to classes.
Describe the students in each of these sets.
a) A∩B b) A∪B
c) A−B d) B−A
2. Suppose thatAis the set of sophomores at your school andBis the set of students in discrete mathematics at your school. Express each of these sets in terms ofA andB.
a) the set of sophomores taking discrete mathematics in your school
b) the set of sophomores at your school who are not tak- ing discrete mathematics
c) the set of students at your school who either are sophomores or are taking discrete mathematics d) the set of students at your school who either are not
sophomores or are not taking discrete mathematics 3. LetA= {1,2,3,4,5}andB= {0,3,6}. Find
a) A∪B. b) A∩B.
c) A−B. d) B−A.
4. LetA= {a, b, c, d, e}andB= {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. Find
a) A∪B. b) A∩B.
c) A−B. d) B−A.
In Exercises 5–10 assume thatAis a subset of some underly- ing universal setU.
5. Prove the complementation law in Table 1 by showing thatA=A.
6. Prove the identity laws in Table 1 by showing that a) A∪ ∅ =A. b) A∩U=A.
7. Prove the domination laws in Table 1 by showing that a) A∪U=U. b) A∩ ∅ = ∅.
8. Prove the idempotent laws in Table 1 by showing that a) A∪A=A. b) A∩A=A.
9. Prove the complement laws in Table 1 by showing that a) A∪A=U. b) A∩A= ∅.
10. Show that
a) A− ∅ =A. b) ∅ −A= ∅.
11. LetAandBbe sets. Prove the commutative laws from Table 1 by showing that
a) A∪B=B∪A.
b) A∩B=B∩A.
12.Prove the first absorption law from Table 1 by showing that ifAandBare sets, thenA∪(A∩B)=A.
13. Prove the second absorption law from Table 1 by show- ing that ifAandBare sets, thenA∩(A∪B)=A.
14. Find the sets Aand Bif A−B= {1,5,7,8},B−A= {2,10}, andA∩B= {3,6,9}.
15. Prove the second De Morgan law in Table 1 by showing that ifAandBare sets, thenA∪B=A∩B
a) by showing each side is a subset of the other side.
b) using a membership table.
16. LetAandBbe sets. Show that
a) (A∩B)⊆A. b) A⊆(A∪B).
c) A−B⊆A. d) A∩(B−A)= ∅.
e) A∪(B−A)=A∪B.
17. Show that ifAandBare sets in a universeUthenA⊆B if and only ifA∪B=U.
18. Given setsAandBin a universeU, draw the Venn dia- grams of each of these sets.
a) A→B= {x∈U|x∈A→x∈B}
b) A↔B= {x∈U|x∈A↔x∈B}
19. Show that ifA,B, andCare sets, thenA∩B∩C=A∪ B∪C
a) by showing each side is a subset of the other side.
b) using a membership table.
20. LetA,B, andCbe sets. Show that a) (A∪B)⊆(A∪B∪C).
b) (A∩B∩C)⊆(A∩B).
c) (A−B)−C⊆A−C.
d) (A−C)∩(C−B)= ∅.
e) (B−A)∪(C−A)=(B∪C)−A.
21. Show that ifAandBare sets, then a) A−B=A∩B.
b) (A∩B) ∪(A∩B)=A.
22. Show that ifAandBare sets withA⊆B, then a) A∪B=B.
b) A∩B=A.
23. Prove the first associative law from Table 1 by show- ing that if A, B, and C are sets, then A∪(B∪C)= (A∪B)∪C.
24.Prove the second associative law from Table 1 by show- ing that if A, B, and C are sets, then A∩(B∩C)= (A∩B)∩C.
25.Prove the first distributive law from Table 1 by showing that ifA,B, andCare sets, thenA∪(B∩C)=(A∪B)∩ (A∪C).
26. Let A, B, and C be sets. Show that (A−B)−C= (A−C)−(B−C).
27. Let A= {0,2,4,6,8,10}, B= {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}, and C= {4,5,6,7,8,9,10}. Find
a) A∩B∩C. b) A∪B∪C.
c) (A∪B)∩C. d) (A∩B)∪C.
28. Draw the Venn diagrams for each of these combinations of the setsA,B, andC.
a) A∩(B∪C) b) A∩B∩C c) (A−B)∪(A−C)∪(B−C)
29. Draw the Venn diagrams for each of these combinations of the setsA,B, andC.
a) A∩(B−C) b) (A∩B)∪(A∩C) c) (A∩B)∪(A∩C)
30. Draw the Venn diagrams for each of these combinations of the setsA,B,C, andD.
a) (A∩B)∪(C∩D) b) A∪B∪C∪D c) A−(B∩C∩D)
31. What can you say about the setsAandBif we know that a) A∪B=A? b) A∩B=A?
c) A−B=A? d) A∩B=B∩A?
e) A−B=B−A?
32. Can you conclude thatA=BifA,B, andCare sets such that
a) A∪C=B∪C? b) A∩C=B∩C?
c) A∪C=B∪CandA∩C=B∩C?
33. LetAandBbe subsets of a universal setU. Show that A⊆Bif and only ifB⊆A.
34. LetA,B, and C be sets. Use the the identityA−B= A∩B, which holds for any setsAandB, and the identities from Table 1 to show that (A−B)∩(B−C)∩(A−C)
= ∅.
35. LetA,B, andCbe sets. Use the identities in Table 1 to show that (A∪B)∩(B∪C)∩(A∪C)=A∩B∩C.
36. Prove or disprove that for all setsA,B, andC, we have a) A×(B∪C)=(A×B)∪(A×C).
b) A×(B∩C)=(A×B)∩(A×C).
37. Prove or disprove that for all setsA,B, andC, we have a) A×(B−C)=(A×B)−(A×C).
b) A×(B∪C)=A×(B∪C).
Thesymmetric differenceofAandB, denoted byA⊕B, is the set containing those elements in eitherAorB, but not in bothAandB.
38. Find the symmetric difference of{1,3,5}and{1,2,3}.
39. Find the symmetric difference of the set of computer sci- ence majors at a school and the set of mathematics majors at this school.
40. Draw a Venn diagram for the symmetric difference of the setsAandB.
41. Show thatA⊕B=(A∪B)−(A∩B).
42. Show thatA⊕B=(A−B)∪(B−A).
43. Show that ifAis a subset of a universal setU, then a) A⊕A= ∅. b) A⊕∅ =A.
c) A⊕U=A. d) A⊕A=U.
44. Show that ifAandBare sets, then
a) A⊕B=B⊕A. b) (A⊕B)⊕B=A.
45. What can you say about the setsAandBifA⊕B=A?
∗46. Determine whether the symmetric difference is associa- tive; that is, ifA,B, andCare sets, does it follow that A⊕(B⊕C)=(A⊕B)⊕C?
∗47. Suppose that A,B, and C are sets such that A⊕C= B⊕C. Must it be the case thatA=B?
48. IfA, B, C, andDare sets, does it follow that (A⊕B)⊕ (C⊕D)=(A⊕C)⊕(B⊕D)?
49. IfA,B,C, andDare sets, does it follow that (A⊕B)⊕ (C⊕D)=(A⊕D)⊕(B⊕C)?
50. Show that ifAandBare finite sets, thenA∪Bis a finite set.
51. Show that ifAis an infinite set, then wheneverBis a set, A∪Bis also an infinite set.
∗52. Show that ifA,B, andCare sets, then
|A∪B∪C|=|A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|
−|A∩C|−|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C|.
(This is a special case of the inclusion–exclusion princi- ple, which will be studied in Chapter 8.)
53. LetAi= {1,2,3,…, i}fori=1,2,3,.…Find a)
⋃n i=1
Ai. b)
⋂n i=1
Ai.
54. LetAi= {…,−2,−1,0,1,…, i}. Find
a)
⋃n i=1
Ai. b)
⋂n i=1
Ai.
55. LetAibe the set of all nonempty bit strings (that is, bit strings of length at least one) of length not exceedingi.
Find a)
⋃n i=1
Ai. b)
⋂n i=1
Ai.
56. Find⋃∞
i=1Aiand⋂∞
i=1Aiif for every positive integeri, a) Ai= {i, i+1, i+2,…}.
b) Ai= {0, i}.
c) Ai=(0, i), that is, the set of real numbers x with 0<x<i.
d) Ai=(i,∞), that is, the set of real numbers x with x>i.
57. Find⋃∞
i=1Aiand⋂∞
i=1Aiif for every positive integeri, a) Ai= {−i,−i+1,…,−1,0,1,…, i−1, i}.
b) Ai= {−i, i}.
c) Ai=[−i, i], that is, the set of real numbers x with
−i≤x≤i.
d) Ai=[i,∞), that is, the set of real numbers x with x≥i.
58. Suppose that the universal set is U= {1,2,3,4, 5,6,7,8,9,10}. Express each of these sets with bit strings where theith bit in the string is 1 ifiis in the set and 0 otherwise.
a) {3,4,5}
b) {1,3,6,10}
c) {2,3,4,7,8,9}
59. Using the same universal set as in the last exercise, find the set specified by each of these bit strings.
a) 11 1100 1111 b) 01 0111 1000 c) 10 0000 0001
60. What subsets of a finite universal set do these bit strings represent?
a) the string with all zeros b) the string with all ones
61. What is the bit string corresponding to the difference of two sets?
62. What is the bit string corresponding to the symmetric dif- ference of two sets?
63. Show how bitwise operations on bit strings can be used to find these combinations of A= {a, b, c, d, e}, B= {b, c, d, g, p, t, v}, C= {c, e, i, o, u, x, y, z}, and D= {d, e, h, i,n, o, t, u, x, y}.
a) A∪B b) A∩B
c) (A∪D)∩(B∪C) d) A∪B∪C∪D
64.How can the union and intersection ofnsets that all are subsets of the universal setUbe found using bit strings?
Thesuccessorof the setAis the setA∪ {A}.
65.Find the successors of the following sets.
a) {1,2,3} b) ∅
c) {∅} d) {∅,{∅}}
66.How many elements does the successor of a set withn elements have?
67.Let A and B be the multisets {3⋅a,2⋅b,1⋅c} and {2⋅a,3⋅b,4⋅d}, respectively. Find
a) A∪B. b) A∩B. c) A−B.
d) B−A. e) A+B.
68.Assume thata∈A, whereAis a set. Which of these state- ments are true and which are false, where all sets shown are ordinary sets, and not multisets. Explain each answer.
a) {a, a} ∪ {a, a, a} = {a, a, a, a, a}
b) {a, a} ∪ {a, a, a} = {a}
c) {a, a} ∩ {a, a, a} = {a, a}
d) {a, a} ∩ {a, a, a} = {a}
e) {a, a, a} − {a, a} = {a}
69.Answer the same questions as posed in Exercise 68 where all sets are multisets, and not ordinary sets.
70.Suppose that Ais the multiset that has as its elements the types of computer equipment needed by one depart- ment of a university and the multiplicities are the num- ber of pieces of each type needed, andBis the analogous multiset for a second department of the university. For instance,Acould be the multiset{107⋅personal comput- ers, 44⋅routers, 6⋅servers}andBcould be the multiset {14⋅personal computers, 6⋅routers, 2⋅mainframes}.
a) What combination ofAandBrepresents the equip- ment the university should buy assuming both depart- ments use the same equipment?
b) What combination ofAandBrepresents the equip- ment that will be used by both departments if both departments use the same equipment?
c) What combination ofAandBrepresents the equip- ment that the second department uses, but the first de- partment does not, if both departments use the same equipment?
d) What combination ofAandBrepresents the equip- ment that the university should purchase if the depart- ments do not share equipment?
The Jaccard similarity J(A, B) of the finite sets A and B is J(A, B)=|A∩B|∕|A∪B|, with J(∅,∅)=1. The Jac- card distance dJ(A, B) betweenAandBequals dJ(A, B)= 1−J(A, B).
71. FindJ(A, B) anddJ(A, B) for these pairs of sets.
a) A= {1,3,5},B= {2,4,6}
b) A= {1,2,3,4},B= {3,4,5,6}
c) A= {1,2,3,4,5,6},B= {1,2,3,4,5,6}
d) A= {1},B= {1,2,3,4,5,6}
72. Prove that each of the properties in parts (a)–(d) holds wheneverAandBare finite sets.
a) J(A, A)=1 anddJ(A, A)=0
b) J(A, B)=J(B, A) anddJ(A, B)=dJ(B, A) c) J(A, B)=1 anddJ(A, B)=0 if and only ifA=B d) 0≤J(A, B)≤1 and 0≤dJ(A, B)≤1
∗∗e) Show that ifA,B, andC are sets, then dJ(A, C)≤ dJ(A, B)+dJ(B, C). (This inequality is known as the triangle inequalityand together with parts (a), (b), and (c) implies thatdJ is ametric.)
Fuzzy sets are used in artificial intelligence. Each element in the universal setUhas adegree of membership, which is a real number between 0 and 1 (including 0 and 1), in a fuzzy setS. The fuzzy setSis denoted by listing the elements
Links with their degrees of membership (elements with 0 degree of membership are not listed). For instance, we write{0.6 Alice, 0.9 Brian, 0.4 Fred, 0.1 Oscar, 0.5 Rita}for the setF(of fa- mous people) to indicate that Alice has a 0.6 degree of mem- bership inF, Brian has a 0.9 degree of membership inF, Fred has a 0.4 degree of membership inF, Oscar has a 0.1 degree of membership inF, and Rita has a 0.5 degree of membership inF(so that Brian is the most famous and Oscar is the least famous of these people). Also suppose thatRis the set of rich people withR= {0.4 Alice, 0.8 Brian, 0.2 Fred, 0.9 Oscar, 0.7 Rita}.
73. Thecomplementof a fuzzy setSis the setS, with the degree of the membership of an element inSequal to 1 minus the degree of membership of this element inS.
FindF(the fuzzy set of people who are not famous) and R(the fuzzy set of people who are not rich).
74. Theunionof two fuzzy setsSandTis the fuzzy setS∪T, where the degree of membership of an element inS∪T is the maximum of the degrees of membership of this el- ement inSand inT. Find the fuzzy setF∪Rof rich or famous people.
75. Theintersectionof two fuzzy setsSandTis the fuzzy setS∩T, where the degree of membership of an element inS∩T is the minimum of the degrees of membership of this element inSand inT. Find the fuzzy setF∩Rof rich and famous people.