Besides plural suffixes (1.3) and personal suffixes (1.4.4), there are suffixes that convert adjectives or verbs into nouns.
D
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Nominalizing suffixes 1.10.1 Adjective into noun
1.10.1.1 -sa
Adjective-root + sa/na-adjective (minus copula) + sa convert an adjective or na-adjective into a noun. This is a very productive formation, being possible with practically any adjective or na-adjective. -sa nominalizations are used in sentences that require a noun as predicate, i.e. equational, cleft and noun sentences (see 22), or for occupying the noun-slot in noun+case particle combinations, as in examples d–e.
a 六十九歳とは思えない若々しさだ。(cf., 若々しい wakawakashii
‘youthful’)
Rokujokyo-sai to wa omoenai wakawakashi-sa da.
He’s so youthful that it’s hard to think he’s 69 (lit. “it’s a youthfulness which makes it hard . . .”).
b 日本では考えられない速さだ。(cf., 速い hayai ‘speedy’) Nihon de wa kangaerarenai haya-sa da.
The speed [of establishing a shareholding company] is unthinkable in Japan.
c ただし、大画面テレビはもう一つの問題を浮かび上がらせる。
日本の住宅の狭さだ。(cf., 狭い semai ‘small’)
Tadashi, dai-gamen terebi wa mn hitotsu no mondai o ukabiagaraseru. Nihon no jotaku no sema-sa da.
However, there’s another problem with large-screen TVs. It’s the smallness of Japanese homes.
d 安さだけでは顧客に満足してもらえない時代になった。
(cf., 安い yasui ‘cheap’)
Yasu-sa dake de wa kokyaku ni manzoku shite moraenai jidai ni natta.
It’s (lit. “become”) an age where cheapness isn’t enough to satisfy customers.
e サッカーの陽気さは、祈ったあとの迷いのない陽気さだ。
(cf., 陽気な ynki (na) ‘exuberant’)
Sakkk no ynki-sa wa, inotta ato no mayoi no nai ynki-sa da.
The exuberance of soccer is an exuberance that knows no wavering, like that after praying.
34 1
Nouns 1.10.1.2 -mi
Some adjectives proper also have noun forms ending in -mi. These are derived by adding -mi to Adj-root. Examples include tsuyomi ‘strength’, yowami ‘weakness’, kayumi ‘itch’.
Whereas the -sa forms are simple nominalizations, the -mi forms tend to have some idiomatic meaning. Compare the examples below for the dif- ference between tsuyosa ‘strength’ (example a) and tsuyomi ‘strength’,
‘strong point’ (example b).
a 常緑樹の緑は、厳冬を乗り越える命の強さを象徴するのだそうだ。
Jnrokuju no midori wa, gentn o norikoeru inochi no tsuyosa o shnchn suru no da sn da.
The green of evergreen trees is said to symbolize the strength of life in getting through severe winters.
b 日本のサッカーに慣れているのも強みだ。
Nihon no sakkk ni narete iru no mo tsuyomi da.
One of his strong points is that he is used to Japanese soccer.
1.10.1.3 Adjective-ku
A very small number of adjectives also has a noun form which uses the stem form, ending in -ku. This is limited to a select number of adjectives that relate to distance, time, and amount, tiku ‘distance’, chikaku ‘vicin- ity’, furuku ‘of old’ and iku ‘plenty’.
Note 1 – in its noun form (as opposed to its adjective -ku use, see Notes 2 and 3), iku is used only to modify other nouns by means of no in the sense of ‘many’.
tiku, chikaku and furuku can also attach other case or adverbial particles besides modifying other nouns by means of the no.
Note 2 – these forms can of course also be used as conjunctive form equivalents of Adj. (see 21.1.1).
Note 3 – chikaku can also be used as an adverb in the sense of ‘soon’.
a 女性は近〱の銀行で現金を引き出した後、息子の家まで歩いて行 〱ところだったという。
Josei wa chikaku no ginkn de genkin o hikidashita ato, musuko no ie made aruite iku tokoro datta to iu.
The woman says that she was about to walk to her son’s house after having withdrawn some cash from a nearby bank.
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Nominalizing suffixes b 近〱にいるより遠〱から見たほうが目立つ。
Chikaku ni iru yori tnku kara mita hn ga medatsu.
It [= the clock] is more impressive when seen from a distance rather than close to.
1.10.2 Verb → noun
1.10.2.1 -kata
Attached to V-stem, -kata converts the verb it is attached to into a noun with the meaning of ‘way of doing’.
a これがー番おいしい食べ方です。
Kore ga ichiban oishii tabe-kata desu.
This is the best way of eating [it].
b これがこの国でのやり方だ。
Kore ga kono kuni de no yari-kata da.
This is the way things are done in this country.
c 百貨店には百貨店の売り方がありますから。
Hyakkaten ni wa hyakkaten no uri-kata ga arimasu kara.
Department stores have their own way of selling things, you know.
d 英語による俳句の作り方について講演会などを催す。
Eigo ni yoru haiku no tsukuri-kata ni tsuite knenkai nado o moynsu.
They give classes in how to compose haiku in English.
e 養蚕農家の減り方はすさまじいほどだ。
Ynsan nnka no heri-kata wa susamajii hodo da.
The rate at which silk farmers are disappearing is appalling.
1.10.2.2 -yn
-yi converts a verb (V-stem) into a noun. It is used in three ways, as set out in the following sections.
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36 1
Nouns 1.10.2.2.1 Verb-stem-yn
The combination means ‘way of doing’.
a 同店の栗原美弥子さん（46）は「今日の光（こう）ちゃんは本当 の笑顔を見せて〱れた」と手放しの喜びようだ。
Dnten no Kurihara Miyako-san (yonjoroku) wa ‘Kyn no Kn-chan wa hontn no egao o misete kureta’ to tebanashi no yorokobi-yn da.
Ms Miyako Kurihara (46) of the same store is overjoyed, saying,
‘Today, Ki-chan had a really radiant look’.
b 姫路っ子は古〱からお城とともに生きてきた。それぞれの時代を 守りぬいてきたなじみのお城が一躍「世界の宝」にリストアッ プされたのだから、その喜びようは推して知るべしである。
Himeji-kko wa furuku kara o-shiro to tomo ni ikite kita.
Sorezore no jidai o mamori-nuite kita najimi no oshiro ga ichiyaku ‘sekai no takara’ ni risutoappu sareta no da kara, sono yorokobi-yn wa oshite shiru-beshi de aru.
The inhabitants of Himeji have lived with their castle for a long time.
As the familiar castle, which has watched over the various ages, has suddenly been listed a ‘world treasure’, you can imagine their delight (lit. “way of showing joy”).
1.10.2.2.2 Verb-stem-yn ga nai
In the negative, the meaning is ‘there is no way of doing’.
a おカネがないのだから、ほかに考えようがない。
Okane ga nai no da kara, hoka ni kangae-yn ga nai.
[Issuing deficit government bonds:] Since we don’t have any money, there is nothing else that can be considered.
b 気候だけは手の打ちようがない。
Kikn dake wa te no uchi-yn ga nai.
Whatever else, about the weather there is nothing one can do.
c 初耳だ。コメントのしようがない。
Hatsumimi da. Komento no shi-yn ga nai.
This is the first time I’ve heard about this. I can’t comment.
mmmmml
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Nominalizing suffixes d ビビッドのつづりが分からない、いやその前に何語かわからない
ので意味の確かめようがない。
Bibiddo no tsuzuri ga wakaranai, iya sono mae ni nanigo ka wakaranai no de imi no tashikame-yn ga nai.
I have no way of checking the meaning of ‘bibiddo’, because I don’t know how it is spelt, and before that I don’t know [from] what language it comes.
1.10.2.2.3 Verb-te shiyn ga nai
Note that shiyi itself is a combination of shi (V-stem of suru) + yi. The literal meaning is therefore “there is no way of doing (anything about) V-ing”, i.e. ‘can’t help doing’.
a 涙が流れてしようがない。
Namida ga nagarete shiyn ga nai.
I cannot help tears running down [my face].
Note – the expression shiyi ga nai (often contracted to shi ga nai) and its partial synonym shikata ga nai are extremely common by themselves, meaning ‘it can’t be helped’, ‘there’s nothing that can be done’, ‘never mind’, etc.
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Chapter 2
Case particles
Case particles indicate the semantic or logical relationship of nouns or nominal elements they follow with other parts of a sentence.
2.1 ga
ga generally marks the subject of a sentence (but with certain predicates it translates into English like an object).
ga is often contrasted with the adverbial particle wa, and the distinction in usage between the two is said to be one of the most difficult problems facing the foreign learner of the language (see 11.3).
Depending on the type of sentence, ga also contrasts with some other case particles (see 2.1.4, 2.1.5).
The various uses of ga as a subject marker relate to its basic meaning, which can be characterized as perception. This in turn derives from the fact that ga used to be a genitive particle. This use is still found in some place names, and other fossilized uses.
a 霞ヶ関
Kasumigaseki (lit. “barrier of haze”, name of an area in central Tokyo;
ヶ is an alternative way of writing ga)
b 我が家
wagaya
Our home (lit. “I + genitive particle + house”)
When used with a following verb instead of a noun, the combination also functions like a noun phrase, i.e. yuki ga furu means ‘snow falling’ or ‘the falling of snow’, perceiving a phenomenon or event piecemeal. wa, on the
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39 ga other hand, splits a sentence in two, the second half being a considered judgement of the first (see 11.3, 11.3.12).
2.1.1 With one-place verb/adjective
With a one-place (i.e. intransitive) verb, or adjective, ga marks the subject of a spontaneous happening or phenomenon (examples b–e).
a 涙が出た。(= spontaneous happening) Namida ga deta.
Tears came to my eyes (lit. “tears came out”).
b 空が暗〱なった。
Sora ga kuraku natta.
The sky darkened.
c 頭が混乱してきました。
Atama ga konran shite kimashita.
I’m confused (lit. “my head has got confused”).
d 時間が止まったようだった。
Jikan ga tomatta yn datta.
It was as if time had stopped.
e 日本海側では雪が降った。
Nihonkai-gawa de wa yuki ga futta.
On the Japan Sea side, it snowed (lit. “snow fell”).
2.1.2 With ellipted ga Colloquially, ga is often ellipted.
a 今夜はお父さん帰ってこないの。
Kon’ya wa otnsan kaette konai no.
Tonight, hubby’s not coming home.
2.1.3 With ellipted predicate
Where the context makes it clear what the meaning is, the predicate can be omitted.
40 2 Case particles
a しかし、だれが、なぜ。
Shikashi, dare ga, naze.
But who [did this], [and] why?
2.1.4 ga in potential sentences
ga in a potential sentence usually marks the NP that would be marked by o in its non-potential counterpart. In English, this translates as the object of the potential verb.
The potential verb dekiru originally means ‘to happen’, so potential sen- tences can be seen to be related to the basic (= spontanous happening) meaning of ga.
Note that in potential sentences also using the comparative hi ga (exam- ple c), ga is used twice in a sentence. The object particle o can also be used with potential verbs (example d), which gives it a more objective ring.
a 勝つゴルフが出来ない。
Katsu gorufu ga dekinai.
I can’t play winning golf.
b もう暑いところでは研究ができない。
Mn atsui tokoro de wa kenkyo ga dekinai.
I can’t do research in hot climates (lit. “places”) any more.
c ワイドな画面の方が動きが楽しめるためだ。
Waido na gamen no hn ga ugoki ga tanoshimeru tame da.
This is because movement can be enjoyed better on a wide screen.
d 露天ぶろのように入浴を楽しめる。
Rotenburo no yn ni nyoyoku o tanoshimeru.
One can enjoy the bath like [being in] an outside bath.
2.1.5 ga in desiderative sentences
In desiderative sentences (hoshii/-tai), ga marks the object of desire (see 9.2), again as a spontanous indication of the speaker’s wish.
In English, this translates as the object of a desiderative verb. Alternatively, the object of desire in these sentences can be marked by o (see 2.2.3, 9.2), which gives the sentence a more objective ring.
41 a 何か、刺激がほしい。 ga
Nani ka, shigeki ga hoshii.
I want some stimulus.
b 本を五、六冊書〱時間がほしい。
Hon o go, roku-satsu kaku jikan ga hoshii.
I want the time to write five or six books.
c ほかの仕事がやりたい。
Hoka no shigoto ga yari-tai.
I want to do a different job.
d すご〱大きい。早〱飛行機が見たい。
Sugoku nkii. Hayaku hiknki ga mi-tai.
It [the airport]’s so big. I want to see the aeroplanes soon.
e 海外の反応が早〱知りたい。
Kaigai no hannn ga hayaku shiritai.
I want to find out quickly about reactions abroad.
f 「肉やお菓子が食べたい」と笑う。
‘Niku ya o-kashi ga tabe-tai’ to warau.
‘I want to eat meat and cakes’, she laughs.
g いっしょに笑い、いっしょに泣けるような結婚がしたい。
Issho ni warai, issho ni nakeru yn na kekkon ga shitai.
I want a marriage where we can laugh and cry together.
2.1.6 ga in passive sentences
In a passive sentence, ga marks the NP that would be marked by o in its active counterpart (see 12).
a また、インド洋でも海水温度の上昇が報告されている。
Mata, Indoyn de mo kaisui ondo no jnshn ga hnkoku sarete iru.
Furthermore, in the Indian Ocean a rise in the sea temperature has been reported.
b 僕ひとりが認められたんじゃない。
Boku hitori ga mitomerareta n ja nai.
I wasn’t the only one to receive recognition.
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Case particles 2.1.7 ga marking the preceding subject noun/noun phrase
ga has been explained as providing emphasis to the noun or noun phrase it is attached to (shown in [ ] ); when comparing ga and wa in subject position, wa has the effect of subduing the noun/NP it is attached to by focussing on the predicate, and in that sense ga is comparatively more concerned with the item it is attached to (see 11.3, 11.3.12 for details).
a これが一番おいしい食べ方です。
[Kore] ga ichiban oishii tabekata desu.
This is the best way of eating [it].
b ほとんどが家庭の主婦だ。
[Hotondo] ga katei no shufu da.
Almost all are housewives.
c 警察庁によると、今年に入っていじめが原因と推定される子供の自殺 事件は未遂を含め計八件起きた。このうち六人が死亡している。
Keisatsu-chn ni yoru to, kotoshi ni haitte ijime ga gen’in to suitei sareru kodomo no jisatsu jiken wa misui o fukume kei hakken okita. Kono uchi [rokunin] ga shibn shite iru.
According to the police agency, this year there has been a total of eight cases of child suicide, including attempted ones, which are assumed to have been caused by bullying. Six of them have died.
d キャベツ、タマネギ、ニンジン、ハクサイなどが主な品目だ。
[Kyabetsu, tamanegi, ninjin, hakusai nado] ga omo na hinmoku da.
Cabbages, onions, carrots, Chinese cabbage, etc. are the main items.
2.1.8 ga in comparative/superlative sentences:
marking the preferred item (= subject)
Similar in effect to its use in 2.1.7, ga marks the item singled out as having some property or quality to a larger/the largest extent in comparative (often together with hi) and superlative sentences (see 6.7.1.1, 6.7.2.3).
2.1.8.1 Noun ga
a 豚肉より牛肉の方が安い。
Butaniku yori gyoniku no hn ga yasui.
Beef is cheaper than pork.
43 ga b 牛肉が豚肉より安い——。
Gyoniku ga butaniku yori yasui--.
Beef is cheaper than pork.
c 今が一番、仕事がおもしろい時期だ。
Ima ga ichiban, shigoto ga omoshiroi jiki da.
Now is the time when work is most interesting.
d お客様が一番正直です。