REDEFINING ISLAMIC ORTHODOXY IN THE INOONESIAN CONTEXT
E. NU and Muhammadiyah: Sorne Mutual Criticisms
This pmitan tendency of the reform movement has inevitably met with criticism from its opponents in the traditionalist camp. This is naturally the case, since the two parties have developed different approaches to understanding the doctrine of Islam and its practices in the Indonesian context. Some of those criticisms come ftom young scholars of a traditionalist background who perceive the modernist approach as much too textually oriented, and thus (ess inclined ta accept local traditions and relîgious festivals not clearly sanctioned by the sbarlcab. Tbese traditions are often the product of the people's cultural creativity, who care little as to whether or not they are justified by the texts. The traditionalists, accordingly, have employed them as a channel for expressing religious emotions by means of which they can awaken relïgious conscious- nessintheir followers. The popular religious traditionsMOst often criticized are, among
113M. Yunan Yusuf,Coralc Pemüciran Kalam Tafsir al-Az/ItIr(Jakarta: PustakaPanjimas. 1990),p. lOS.
• 114 James L. Peacock. Muslim Puritans: Rqormist Psychology in SoutMtUt Asiœl lslœra (Berkeley:
UDÎversÎty of CalifomiaPress.1978),p.18.
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others: the celebration of the Prophet's birthday on the 121bof RabI' al-Awwal, the third month of the Muslim calendar; recitation of the Barzanii, Q8Ildat a/-Burdab, Diba?, and other Prophetic panegyrics, and the veneration of /ay/at a/-qadr. The BarzanjÎrecitatio~
for instance, a tradition deeply rooted among the traditionalists, is considered the preferred medium for expressing intense love of the Prophet. The BarzanJi is frequently recited on the occasion ofHfe cycle events (such as birtb and maniage), but truly comes into its own during the celebration of the Prophet's birtbday. Althougb the latter has been censured by the modernists as a bid~ab, since the Propbet himself Dever ordered Muslims to celebrate his birthday,Ils the traditionalists nevertheless insist on doing50.
As Hamim putsit: "the celebration of the Prophet's birthday (maw/id a/-nabl) bas been the result of the cultural creativity that in fact has been justified by Muslim jurists since the period of al-Suyüii [do 15051]. AImost all Shifi'ite jurists approve the Prophet's birthday celebration with panegyric recitation as its principal activity."116
115The bclief that the celebration of the Prophet's birthday is bid'Mlisnot only held by themodernist MuslimsiDIndonesia. Ilisalsoechoed by the Muslim Suadent Associations foundinNonh America, sKb as that at McGill University. Ina pamphlet distributed on the Friday poyer,July2- 1999, (or ÏDSt8Dce, it wustatcd that thcre isnothing in the Qur'in ta say tbat Muslims should cclebrate the birthday of the Prophet. The Prophet himself did not do this or command anyone to do it, either during bis Iifetimc or alter bis death. Indeed the Prophet lold them not ta exaggerate about himas the Christians had about Jesus. This, according to the Pamphlet. is based on a fJadith narrated by aJ-Bukhïii. Howevcr, the Prophet,as reportedbyMus~al-Nasa'i,and Abü Diw\id. made the day ofhis birth aclayo( wonbipiD the fonn of fasting. When he was asked about(astingon Mondays, he replied:"ThalistheclayOBwbich 1 wu bom md theday on whicb [ was cotrusted with the Mission or when 1 wu first givCDRevc"ion."
The Pamphlet further insists that none of thelmirosdid or commmdcd olhers10celebratethe Prophct's birtbday. '"The celebration of the Prophet's birthdayappeared many centuries latcr, when mmy ofthe (eatures of true religion bad vanished and bid'ah had bccome widcspread." Sec, "Mawlid a1-Nabi (tbe Prophct's birthday): Why some people accept and somc UDKCeptthecelebration of the Pmpbet(S.LW.)?"
a Pamphlet by IsIamic Students Society ofMcGill University,luly 1999.
1161bobaHamitn..6Faham Ahl aI-Sunnah waal-lama·ah: DokttindanTantanganAswaja."A..Ia,vol. 19.
DO. 03 (Man:b 1997). p. 61. Hamim's criticism of modernisu is aetually based on the idca beld by Moenawar ChaIil. His swdy on Cham's thougbt. "MoenawarCbalil's Rcformist lboubt: A Study of an 1ndonesiaD Religious Schol~ (1996). has caused him to defend SODle popular religious traditions commonly maintained by the traditionalists. Hamim devotes one cbapœr inthe latter work10discussinl
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Due to their insistence on a textual approach to grasping religious doctrines, the modemists, according to the traditionalist crities, have lost aIl momentum in expanding the cultural aspects of religious activity-an approach aIleged1y adopted by Sunn1 ,uiamïi~ver since the classical era. They have been too sensitive about frivolous maUers which have no relation to the principal doctrines of Islam, such as holding parades in celebration of the Prophet's birthday and reciting hymns before undertaking the congregational prayers.117 Therefore, it is not surprising to find that the progress of
art and culture in lndonesian Islam is more evident in traditionallst eircles tban among the modernists. The former have no ideological eonstraints, it was argued, on expanding their talents in art and culture in accordance with the tradition prevalent in the Sunn1 community, where the arts have developed to a considerable degree even in the pesantren,home to such musical forms as orkes, gambusor q/lSidab.118
Chalil's views on popular religious practices. while keenly criticizing him on several points. lite the one discussedinthe above presentation. See bis "Moenawar Chalil·s... pp. 193-230.
117 Itis very common to see in masques predominandy occupied by the traditionalist Muslims Ibat the worshippcrs recite a Iitany in chorus before undenakingthecongn:gational prayers.ln Java. it usually takes place after thead1lanor caU for prayer is pronounced by amu'MJbdJJil4 and servesto fillthc time wbilc waitiDg for more people to join the congregation. The litany varies tiom mosque to mosque, ad is sometimcs sung in Arabic and sometimes in Javanese. Amongthefamous examplcs of the litanyisashon plem(shi'r)ascribedtoAbü Nuwis (c. 756-810):Bibl/_tuU·/-FirdMWSMJ/4 w.li.,.,. ••• • -Dir.-
j~F.b. DtawballlD wa-ghlirdhl/Dübl, fa-irlllakagbiBra/-dbmb . -'.pmiDb.iibimitbJ •'dMl .- rüDi/, w.-dbllDbiza'idkayfâ i/ltimaDIDibl 'abduka a/-'/Illitib, muqirnD bi1-d1JIJDiib n-q«l . ' j b /
W.iD t.,Jdirfa-lIDta H-dbùalib/, WII-ÏD tafrUd r.mmD.qUsiwi&.(Oh, myLord. boacstly1am Dot suitable to dweU inParadise;yet [ cannot stand remainiDg iD HeUl So &ivemercdemptioo,lDdrorgivc mysiDs;iDdced Vouarethe MOst forgiving orthe gn:at sinsJ MysiDsareIikctheIDIOUDtofsmd; yetmy siDsarel1ways increasin& bow could [ endure them.l Obmy Lord, YoUtsiDfulscrvlDt cames to You;
admittiDgailofhissins,andbegging Youl SoilVou forgive, it is entin:ly YOUf dpt [todosol; butif Yourej~wbat other hope have 1 other thm You?). (My own translation). 1 have tothmkMunir •Abd
d·Mu·~currently a student at McGill University. for bis kiDdncss forrccordinsfor metbispocmfmm mcmory. DeiDg a stucfent al the Pondok Gontor (East Java) for about six ycllS (1983-1989) he could memorizctbispoemquite weD,since~togetber with otherstudents,heused to rec:ite this lit.y everyclay before prayers when he was there.
n'ThohaHamim."Fabam AhI aI-Sunnah," p. 62.In line wimIbiscriticism,GcertzaIsotcstifies tbatthe modemistsare less interestedin forms of art. However. they are more conœmcd wimthesportswbicb are
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The above criticisms, however, do not reflect the fondamental issues being debated by both the Muhammadiyah and NU, especially al the present time.119 More- over, criticism of this nature is based largely on ideas held by Moenawar Chalil as 10Dg time aga as the 1950s, ideas which are in large part no longer relevant today. While Muhammadiyah members are still displeased with the practice of tabli/IID, bll1Zanji, manaqib, and ldJauJ, the persistence of such popular religious traditions under NU sponsorship does not greatly disturb Muhammadiyah officials, since they are Dot their main concern. They are, however, reluctant to declare these traditions valid on the grounds that they are not finnly rooted in the teachings of the Prophet. They prefer not to speculate on maUets of ritual doctrine, which can ooly be justified by the fact that
justified, nol in terms of the enjoyment resulted from them bUI on the basis of their body-building and health-preserving functions. Clifford Geenz.The Religion ofJava (Glenco. Dlinois: TheFree Press. (960).
p. ISS. Gambus is a Middle Eastern-type orchestra. consisting of stringed instruments (thegambruproper.
originally adopled from Hadramaut) and various sizes ofdrums(also calledlerbang).Followingthe rhythm ofthe Anbic songs a group of aIl-male dancers dance vigorously in circle. The gambus performance is usually held for circumcision. marriage and for ··graduation" frompesantrens. Sec. ibid.,p. IS6.Orkes isa popular udance band" consisting of stringed instruments tuned to the Western di.oDic sale.andperfonned by banjos. guitars. violins. bass fiddles. mandolins. and ukeleles. Sometimes crumpets [and other new instruments] are also added. The nameorkes is derived fromthe Duteh orkest. meaning orchestra. Ibid•• p.
303. Orkes shows are more popular today and appearalthe rites-of-passage celebrations. and thus have become morecommercial. Qasidah is actually nol far different from bathgamblUand orkes. cxcepl that the musicismore ··Arabic" in tone although the song lyricsarenol always50. Usually il is uscd ta express some "religious message" through its songs. and is mosdy performcd by female musicians and singcrs.
However.Gecnzdoes nol includeorkes and qasidahasforms of art developed amongthe.rantris.While the former is categorizedas contemporaryartand is nol exclusively performed by the .ranlrü (ibid.• pp.
302-307). the latter might have been Icss popular by the lime Geertz undenook bis field resean:h. Yet Oeertz mentions other forms ofannot mentioned by Hamim which is very popular amanlthe SGIIlris. i.e.
Il!rbanganandpencak silal. For Geertz. the main forms ofartdeveloped in thepestUllnnare lerbangan, gambllSlUlandpencak si/al. all of which ucombine to define quite a variant subcultural style by means of whichtheaustere simplicities of Islam are modified for tbose for whom religion needs ta be more tban faith andworksand to whom timeis more than money." Ibid.• p. 158.
119ADother criticism is made by Masdar Farid Mas'udi. a young scholarwithan NU background. Mas'udi's critical iDquiriesare more directed to the principal tenets upbeld by the Muhammadiyah deaünl with its injunction ta retum to theQur'ânand thelJadi~the reopeDÏDg of the gace ofijlibM(IDd theprohibition oftM/BdFor a moredetailed exposition ofthiscriticÎSIDsecbis"MeaujuKebcrasllDUUlllYlDgPopulistik:
Ra>rieatasi Pemikiran Keagamaan Nahdhatul Ulama-Muhammadiyah," iD Yunahar DyIS et al (cds.).
Mubmllll.uyabdllDNU:Rcorientasi WawasllDKeis/6IIl1ID(Yogyakarta: KerjuamaLPPI UMY,LKPSM NUdanppAl-M~(993).pp. 187-189.
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they are performed by the "majority" of the people. The Muhammadiyah tOOay is more concemed with issues directly relating to the social problems faced by Indoncsian Muslims and less interested in debating minor ditTerences ofreligious practice. M. Amin Abdullah, for instance, a young scholar and himself a chainnan of the MajUs Tarjih of the Muhammadiyah Central Board, emphasizes that the Muhammadiyah always takes the initiative in handling issues that have a direct bearing on the welfare of Muslims.
The Muhammadiyah, in this sense, is unlike the classical theological schools of Islam, such as theAsh~aritesor Mu'tazilites. It will not involve itself, for instance, indebating the nature of God or the number of His attributes as the Ash·arïtes or Mituridites delighted in doing, nor will il be distracted by controversy over the qllf/i·and the qadar, or the validity of the five principles of Mu~tazilism (aJ-u.,iiJ aJ-kbamsl!1J). For the Muhammadiyah, il is more important to deal with formulating an effective strategy to improve the living conditions of Muslim,120since the Muhammadiyah beUeves that the fundamental sources of Islam can be translated into concrete religious, social, economic and political activities.121
12DM.AminAbdullah. "Religiositas Kebudayaan:' p. lOS.Inordertoactualizc its ideals, theMuhammadi- yab lays down sorne programs once every live yearsinits Summit Conference, calledMlllctœnar.InitsIast MlÛCIamllr (1995), this Association (PersyariJcatan, as they prefer to cali il) bas oudincd thesc JCneral propamsin Keputusan Mulctamar Muhanuntldiyah ke-43,pp.25-4S.Thcseprogramsare divided intofive constÎtuenlS: global issues. the issues of theMuslim world, the Muhammadiyab's internai issues.and the furtheranc:e of conceptual thought. The latter cODSists of religious tbougbt, science and teebno10IY, developing the economic foundation, social movemeDt, and fortifying the Mubammadiyab Higber Educalion as a basis for advancing scientific achievement. The above gencral prosrams are funber elaborated in detailed programs in ibid.~ pp. 49-12. Sucb programs are regularly evaluated and revised every five years when the organization performs its Summit Conference orMuktanrar.
121AcbmadJainuri, 1be Formation ofthe Muhammadiyab'sIdeology,1912-1942."(Pb.D.Tbesis.McOill Univenity,I991), p. 4,quoting fromKesimpulan Djawaban Masa/ah LimaDtlri Beberapa ~lim 'tk/Qma (Yogyakarta: Hoofdhestur Muhammadijah, 1942),pp. 11-11.
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The claim made by NU to he the sole authentic expression of Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jami'ah dogma has served the organization weU in its recruitment of the largest number of foUowers among Muslim Indonesians. Yet at the same time their adherence to the AhI aI-Sunnah is also used to legitimize ritual practices that cannot be authori- tatively ascrlbed to the Prophet. For the sake of maintaining their popularity, they extend their tolerance to traditions that were unknown inthe pristine Islam. Even this is not 50 much of problem for the critics, however. The rea! difficulty is the fact that the NU's bold claim to the Ahl aI-Sunnah tends to exclude other Muslim groups ftom the pale of Sunnism thus effectively deligitimiziug them.ln This tendency is clearly manifested, for instance, in the following passage from an NU author:
The teachings of the Ahl aI-Sunnah wa'i-Jami'ah inIndonesia will tlourish more rapidly, because we realize that the programs of NU are primarily to defend and reinforce the teachings of this school. And since the majority of Indonesian Muslims are members of NU, this natlU'ally implies that the Islamic doctrines adopted by them are those belonging to theAh! al-Sunnah wa'I-Jami'ah.l23 Nevertheless, despite sorne differences in traditions and practices, both the Muhammadiyah and NU are outstanding representatives of Indonesian Islam. Each
122In the19505 lhere was a heated debate between NU and Persatuan Islam conceming this issue. The NU accused the Masyumi (Majlis Syura Muslimin Indonesia-the sole political party for the IndoDeSiaD Muslims upta 1952. in which Persatuan Islam was its paramount constituent) of heing outside die pale of Islam dueta its unsettled position toward Ahl al-Sunnah. Persatuan Islam. inretum.arguedthalthe epithet ofAh(al-Sunnah wa'I-Jama&ahisnot a guarantee for entering paradisc. TheDIDICisonly allIIIICwithout myspecialvalue. Persatuan Islam went even further by stating that the term Ahl al-Sunnah • •1-1""&ah should notheapplied to any group that foUowed amadbb6Asince the ICSal formulations of themdb"
are the products of human reasoning and are Dot sanctioned by either the Qur'm and the Suaah.
According ta their point of view. Muslims could only mm dccisions regllldiDg œligious matten OD the rcvealed law found in theQur'inand the Smmah. They asserted that it wu Penatumlslam. ad Dot NU, whichcorrectly belonged to the Ahl al-Sunnah, because Persatuan Islam bd alwaysworkcdapinstthe perpetuation ofbid'abinrcligious maUers, while conCormiDg to correct religiousdoctriDe Ddbehavïor.
Howa M. Federspie~ PersatUaD /sIam: /slamic Reform iD Twt:Düetll Cmtlq1DdotJesi.(lthE"New York: Modem IndonesiaProject, ComeUUniversity, 1970), pp. 162-163•
123Rs.Abd.Aziz,Konsepsi Ahlussunnah wal-Jamaah, p. 86.
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maintains that it follows only the religion of Allah. which is notbing other tbm His revelation, His doctrine, and His law or the sbarl·ab.124 As the greatest Muslim organizatioDS in Indonesia, the Muhammadiyah and NU are generally known as representatives of the modemist and traditionalist camps, respectively. Once they were perceived as symbolizing the doctrinal conflict prevailing among Indonesian Muslims.
However, although the strife could sometimes become serious, in subsequent years the people came to understand that in reality their differences were without real deptb, Dot even touching upon the more fundamental principles, and did not jeopardize their reputationsasdevout Muslims. It is also impossible to sec any member of tbese organi..
zations accusing a persan belonging to a different organization of being an infidel, sometbing which might have happened in the 1950s. In Nurcholish Madjid's opinion, both the Muhammadiyah and NU exemplify the two wings of an eagle. It May in fact likewise have been God's will that they should bath exist witbin the Indonesian Muslim community, on the grounds of the Qur'inic decree that God bas created ail existing beings in pairs, consisting of two contradictory parts. They should, therefore, not exanerate their differences, but rather try to come closer together and cooperate in trying to actualize the ideals of Islam.l2S
124MasdarF. Mas'udi, "Menuju Keberagamaan yang Populistik." p. 187.
125Nurcholish Madjid, "ReorientasiWawasan PemikiranKeislaman:UsabaMeŒariKemungkiDan Bentuk PeranTepalUmal IslamIndonesia di AbadXXI."inMuhamnuJdiyahdIInNU.pp. 193-194. Madjidrefcrs tatheQur.anic verses "Glory to Allah? Whocreatedinpairsailminp tbatthecarthpmduccs. as weB as tbeir own (human) lrind and (other) things of which they have no knowlcdge" (36:36); aad "And of everything We have created pairs: That ye may receive insuuction." (51:49)10supportbisarpJDenlS.
• F. The Ah1 al-Sunnah: Another Perspective
Besides the discussion by both NU and Muhammadiyah supporters, it is useful to consider the conclusions reached by Nurcholish Madjid in his "Aktualisasi Ajaran Ahlussunnah Wai Jama'ah.,,126 In tbis article, Madjid asserts that the Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamâ'ah is a unifying force that has brought Muslims together into a single, unified l/ID1Dab. He refers to the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwin (65-86/685-705) who tried to put an end to the conflicts among Muslims. These conflicts had been disrupting the Muslim ummahsince the death of the third Caliph, 'Uthmin b. 'Atlan (d.
35/656). Through his successful attempt at resolving the second Civil War of the early lslamic period (60-73/680-692), he managed to reconcile bis feUow Muslims and thus invented the concept ofjami'ah., the community. This concept, according to Madjid,
• signifies the spirit ofinclusivism, by introducing religious plurality among Muslims. A famous Maximwas coined to reinforce tbis concept: na/plujllD1a'at wil)idab tal}tll riyat diD Al/ab,"we are of a single community under the banner of the religion of Allah." In addition, 'Abd al-Malik a1so introduced the concept oftri;', that is, acknowledgement of the tirst four caliphs as the legitimate leaders of the Muslim community after the Prophet: Abü Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthmin and 'Ali. For the Umayyads, it was onerous to acknowledge 'Ali as a legitimate caliph, due to their hostility toward bis house.
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126 Nurcholish Madjid7 "Aktualisasi Ajaran Ahlussunnah Wal Jama'ah." in Muntaha Azbari and Abdul Mun'im Saleh (eds.), Is/mn Indonesia: Menatap Masa Depan (Jakarta: Perhimpunan Pengembanpn PesantrendanMasyarakat. 1989), pp. 61-80. Inaddition tathis article, Madjid's ideason AhI a1-Sunnab
wa'i-Jami~ahare also disc:ussedinbis04Menegakkan Faham Ahlus-SUDDahwal-JIIIUIah ADam',"iDHlidar Bap(ed.),SatuIs/~Sebuab Dilema(Bandung: ~ 1986), pp. 11-34.Thesetwo articles by Maljid on Abl al-Sunna are actual1y quite similar, except that the former ismore elaborate than the latter.
Howcver, since they are not directiy wrïtten by Madjid but are tnllscribed from SOIDC stnK:tured interviews withhim bytheeditors of the books, they appear to heless exhaustive. NeverthelessIlebas forwarded a new perspective on this issue differing from those prcscnted by the NU aad the Mubam- madiyab.