CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. The Development of the Materials
2. Phases in Material development
Many kinds of models of instructional designs may be applied to create teaching and learning resources, which are most of them engaged in phases identical to the one that can be carried
out: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation that are essential to define effective instruction and these phases are summarized in ADDIE as a separate model (Khalil and Elkhider, 2016). ADDIE model was proposed by Branch (2009). ADDIE offers clear steps to deliver an effective, functional and legitimate product (Hidayati and Widjajanti, 2015).
Picture 2.1
Common Instructional Design Procedures of ADDIE Models proposed by Branch (2009)
a. Analyzing Phase
In ADDIE model, the students’ background and educational resources are evaluated during the analysis phase to determine the instructional goals, the attributes of the target student (e.g., currentcomprehension, experience, preferences and attitudes) and the learning environment/context of the pupil (Khalil and Elkhider, 2016). Analyzing phase is crucial in revealing the requirements and solving the problem of teaching
material so that, needs analysis (NA) is essential in designing courses or developing materials (Flowerdew, 2013). Widodo (2017) suggested that needs analysis is an indispensable part of the development of a curriculum that offers the basis of the planning of a course, syllabus designing, developing and reviewing the material, and developing the instructional plan and assessment. NA includes rich information on the content and goals of each assignment, the procedure, cognitive interventions, communicative guidelines, linguistic standards required to meet the task's objectives, and the evaluation criteria, in addition to defining the 'map' of common tasks required by users. (Malicka, Guerrero, & Norris, 2019).
At the most fundamental stage, a need is an observable gap between two situations, how something is happening now related to what it should be (Altschuld & Watkins, 2014). Needs Analysis is a method for determining and establishing valid instruction and educational goals (Mahmoud, 2014). Ibrahim (2020), referred Needs Analysis (NA) as a terminology that implies a profound transformation in the development of a target curriculum. He also added that it incorporates all activities used to obtain information on students' learning needs, desires, wishes, and so on, that usually requires searching and analyzing knowledge about the learners' preferences so they can be properly covered in the course. It can be characterized as the recognition of challenges and typical circumstances by the assessment of participants in the target situation with the use of interviews and questionnaires along with classroom observation (Ibrahim, 2020).
In general, the term needs analysis corresponds to the activities required in the gathering of data that will serve as the basis for the creation of a curriculum to meet the needs of a certain group of students (Alqunayeer & Zamir, 2016).
Branch (2009), also explained that the analyze phase frequently employs key processes such as evaluating the output inconsistency, pinpointing instructional directions, specifying the target audience, identifying the materials required to execute the overall ADDIE process and the possible implementation mechanisms, and drafting a product design strategy. The main function of the needs analysis is to include critical information to encourage teachers in making effective decisions on material development (Menggo, Suastra, Budiarsa, & Padmadewi, 2019).
Amalia and Husna (2020) implied that need analysis enables teachers to determine whether the existing learning meets learners needs or to recognize gaps between what students can achieve and what they would actually do. They also assumed it can enable teachers to overcome the issue of poor results and determine whether or not the instructional process is working well.
Moreover, Long (2015), mentioned several reasons in conducting needs analysis, namely:
a) to highlight the role of the material to the learners’
circumstances;
b) to clarify the material in terms of relevance to all stakeholders (teacher, learner, administration, parents);
c) to provide the variability in learning needs and styles; and
d) to establish a syllabus that would address the needs of learners as precisely as possible within the framework of the situation of learners.
To portray how to conduct the needs analysis, Liu and Zhang (2020) devised an overview to show interrelated connections among several approach commonly used on this kind of analysis involving:
a. Target Situation Analysis (TSA), attempts to map what learners are expected to be at the end of the instructions. It focuses on answering questions about the target situation and the attitudes of the participants to the situation (Elsaid Mohammed & Nur, 2018)
b. Presents Situation Analysis (PSA), tries to investigate the state of the learners’ existing situations including their skills, learning experiences, strengths and weaknesses at the beginning of the instructions (Haseli, 2008).
c. Deficiency Analysis (DA), directly connected to PSA covers learners lacks and the position of their current level on certain skills,
d. Learning Situation Analysis (LSA), dealing with students' factors such as the educational environment, the degree of learners’ skills, motivations and their expectations;
e. Learning Factor Analysis (LFA), dealing with students' factors such as the educational environment, the degree of learners’ skills, motivations and their expectations;
f. Strategy Analysis (SA), consists of Means Analysis (MA) and Teaching Context Analysis (TCA) and the strategy
analysis is covered by the LNA, that but is often listed separately as a strategy analysis (SA).
g. Learning Needs Analysis (LNA), distinguishes between the desired learning strategies of the learners and the interpretation of effective strategies by teachers.
h. Means Analysis (MA), analyze the teaching atmosphere or activities, primarily within an educational institution or company;
i. Teaching Context Analysis (TCA), analyze the teaching atmosphere or activities, primarily within an educational institution or company;
In conducting the ADDIE model, Gagne, Wager, Golas, Keller, and Russell (2015) suggested the procedures that should be fulfilled in analysis phase includes:
a. identifying the needs of effective solution to solve certain issues arise on particular instructions,
b. analyzing the instructions for defining the objectives of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills that needs to be completed in the course,
c. specify which skills are expected to be acquired by the students and which will affect the learning process,
d. sequencing the activities that can be accomplished based on the available time.
b. Design Phase
The design phase defines the learning goals to determine content and educational objectives, as well as specifies the
implementation mechanisms, the kind of learning experiences and the various media (Khalil and Elkhider, 2016). The aim of the design phase is to validate the intended results and assessment criteria while managing a work inventory, establishing performance targets, developing test strategies and evaluating return on investment are recognized as the most critical processes frequently applied to designing phase (Branch, 2009).
Gagne, Wager, Golas, Keller, and Russell, (2015) mentioned the procedures that need to be done during the design phase includes:
a) Interpret the objectives of the course into target achievement and main intended learning outcomes (unit objectives),
b) Specify the topics and units to be discussed and how long each unit is assigned,
c) The unit segmentation should be based on the course objectives,
d) Accomplish the instruction units and pinpoint the primary strategic goals for every unit, and
e) For each unit, specify teaching - learning activities, f) Make description for evaluating students' achievement.
In language learning material development, Tomlinson (2011) mentioned the principles that should be taken into account when designing a material, namely:
a. the contents of the material have to be impactful, ease students’ learning,
b. improve students’ confidence,
c. provide useful and the relevant content, facilitate students’
self-regulated learning,
d. considering the readiness of the students to acquire the materials,
e. provide authentic exposure and noticeable language features, provide students to experience the language production to develop the communicative competence, concerning the delayed effect of the instruction, students’ learning style, f. material users’ attitudinal differences,
g. facilitating silent period for target language internalization, h. maximizing learning potentials by providing the activities to
stimulate both left and right brain,
i. shouldn’t rely too much on controlled practices, and provide feedback.
Depdiknas, (2008) mentioned four principles in developing materials, namely:
a) Content properness, that the components include its accordance with the requirements of the core and basic competence (KI/KD), children's progress, the need for instructional materials, the true essence of learning materials, the value and concern for social and moral norms.
b) Linguistic expression, that involves readability, knowledge accuracy, consistency with the Indonesian language rules, and effective and efficient use of the language.
c) Presentation, that refers to the consistency of the parameters, the sequence, the intentions and the comprehensiveness of the details to be accomplished.
d) Graphics feasibility, that includes the use of fonts, forms, proportions, layouts, pictures, sketches and taper designs
As a guideline to organize an effective material content presentation and built an overall material structure, Richards (2001) suggests few criteria that should be considered on each unit of learning materials, namely:
a. students’ knowledge enrichment from the materials, b. the usefulness of the materials,
c. students’ sense of achievement,
d. attractiveness and the novelty of the learning activities, e. engaging learning experience,
f. allow students’ self-directed learning and personalization of the learning,
g. students’ self-assessment opportunity.
Moreover, Clark and Mayer’s (2011) also pointed out that:
a) the material should be grouped or divided into manageable and unified components,
b) Material can be sequenced as such that students have ample background knowledge before they progress to more evolved subjects,
c) Words and images should be used concurrently,
d) to make the relations clear, words that complement images should be aligned,
e) the text should be presented communicatively,
f) In e-learning material, the visuals can be clarified either by audio or text but not both,
g) avoid unnecessary information,
h) Conversational and virtual assistants can be used when necessary.
The impactful effect towards the users can be gained through the factor of novelty in terms of topic, illustration or activities, variety, attractive presentations regarding to the layout design, interesting content, and achievable challenge (Tomlinson, 2011). Howard and Major (2005) also proposed three criteria that are used to design appropriate instructional materials such as:
adequacy of instructor materials, suitability of materials to satisfy student requirements, and adequacy of the content to the needs of curricula. They also mentioned the attractiveness of the teaching material that involve the physical appearance, user-friendliness, durability, and the ability to be reproduced are crucial as one of the principles that need to be considered by the material designers when developing the materials.
Salas (2004), suggested that the end result of the materials must be clearly addressed to students. It’s not only about the presentation, but also the instructions, spelling, language usage (grammar, choice diction, and word order). The instructions should be brief, easy, concise and accurate so that students never feel confused or frustrated during the course activities. For the physical appearance, the use of images, text size, and space use are all involved.Another important part of the layout of materials are images that often used in numerous
lessons, so teachers need to select the ones that attractive, accurate and properly sized. In order for the students to see different parts or photographs, graphics, diagram and activities table conveniently, the material developer should consider how the material users can read it in terms of font size and space.
To provide students with time to process the information, visual spaces are important to prevent them feel frustrated, when the content is displayed all at once.
Muslich (2010), mentioned three visual specifications that are needed to be considered when developing materials, including:
1. The book layout and size, that requires to follow the ISO standards,
2. The book cover design, that included: the layout (presentation design, size and colors),
3. The typography and lettering design that expresses the book content, unity, comprehensiveness, knowledge, book content graphic design and illustration.
c. Development Phase
The phase of development entails the construction of instructional materials, a prototype and evaluation instruments (Khalil and Elkhider, 2016). Branch (2009), mentioned the aim of the development phase is to decide and validate the learning materials available during the instruction phase process including; a) the production, b) the selection of current media or the development of additional media for the curriculum, c) the
creation of instructions for teachers and students, d) the conduct of formative reviews and a pilot study.
Gagne, Wager, Golas, Keller, and Russell, (2015) mentioned that during the development phase, the procedures that needed to be included are:
b) Determine the forms of instructional resources and activities, c) Set up the draft of the materials and learning activities,
d) test the content of the materials and the planned learning activities to the targeted audience,
e) rectify, improve and generate the materials and learning activities, and
f) initiate workshop for the instructors or provide a supplementary material
d. Implementation Phase
The aim of the implementation phase is to organize and engage students in the learning environment (Branch, 2009).
As one of the steps on ADDIE Model, implementation is divided into two types, namely the one that is applied while the course is still generated and assessed, that called pilot testing or field testing, and the other one that is launched when the development phase has been fully completed (Gagne, Wager, Golas, Keller, 2005). The implementation phase includes completing the educational materials to promote the mastering of the learning objectives by students and teachers and providing them with required assistance (Khalil and Elkhider, 2016).
Gagne, et al. (2005) proposed 5 principles that applied in implementation stage, such as:
1. Constructing sufficient learning management system that indispensable on current condition,
2. Providing adequate learners’ guidance and assistance, 3. Plan for the transformation of the system,
4. Plan the environment for the deliverance, 5. Plan how to keep and take care of the system.
e. Evaluation Phase
The evaluation phase is to evaluate, both before and after implementation, the performance of instructional materials and procedures, by specifying evaluation criteria for all aspects of the ADDIE process, by selecting or designing any measurement instruments necessary to complete the whole ADDIE process and by carrying out evaluations (Branch, 2009). The evaluation phase covers formative and summative assessment. The formative assessment takes place during the processes of the entire course design process to develop the curriculum continually until final execution while the summative assessment takes place in order to determine the full efficacy of the instruction after the implementation of the final version (Khalil and Elkhider, 2016).
Beside respecting the material development phases, regarding to design and develop an ICT module for EFL student teachers, it is necessary for us to comprehend the concept of digital technology competence, the strategies to incorporate it
into language learning, and also considering the surrounding influencing factors as mentioned on the following sections.
B. The Concept of Digital Technology Competence and