Physical activity (PA) and positive psychology are a match made in heaven – one focuses on the building of happy, fully functioning people (positive psychology) and the other is a tried and tested avenue for creating such positive people (physical activity).
Without a doubt, engaging in physical activity is one of the most important things, if not the most important thing, that a person can do to enhance optimal functioning. Not only does physical activity enhance physical functioning, thereby reducing the risks of disease but it can also make us happier, more energized, confident, self-regulated individuals and even make us smarter (Ratey, 2008).7
Despite knowing that exercise is good for us, the human species is not functioning as it was originally designed to. Our bodies were and are designed to be hunters and gatherers (Astrand, 1994). However, reports suggest that we are now physically functioning at nearly a third of what we used to 100 years ago (Tudor-Locke and
Bassett, 2004); and considerably less than 10,000 years ago. One of the major barriers to exercise implementation is the misconception that activity needs to be painful and extensive and is only for ‘athletic types’. Luckily, we don’t need to train like elite athletes to reap the benefits of activity. Physical activity refers to any type of movement that results in energy expenditure (for example, walking, climbing stairs, gardening or yoga).
The daily recommendation in the UK is currently 30 minutes of moderate to high intensity physical activity at least five times per week. The good news is that PA can be broken down into short bursts throughout the day (3 ⫻10 minute sessions), which still gives us a boost in mood and vitality (Backhouse, 2009). The important thing is to get the heart beating above resting level (you would need to operate at between 60 and 75 per cent of your maximum heart rate).8Physical activity must not be confused with exercise , which is more deliberate and structured with a clear focus on fitness progression. Thus, an aerobic class, training for a run, or anything along the traditional line of activity falls under this category (Biddle and Mutrie, 2007). For the purpose of this chapter, we refer to PA and exercise interchangeably.
So what can exercise do for us in terms of promoting optimal functioning? On a physical level, individuals who participate in activity can reduce their risk of developing several illnesses such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes (type 2), osteoporosis, some sleep disorders, high blood pressure, certain cancers (colon, breast, rectal, lung, prostate, endometrial) and even premature death (Salonen et al., 1983; Paffenbarger et al., 1986). Fortuitously, it is never too late to start.
Epidemiological studies show that people who were previously sedentary but start exercising later on in life still live longer than those who never initiated exercise at all (Camacho et al., 1991).
Psychological benefits include enhanced general wellbeing, body image, self- esteem and self-perceptions (Moses et al., 1989; Fox, 2000; Mutrie and Faulkner, 2004); improved general cognitive functioning among older adults (Boutcher, 2000;
Rejeski and Mihalko, 2001; Rejeski et al., 2001); reduced emotional distress (Steptoe et al., 1996); reduced anxiety (McDonald and Hodgdon, 1991) and reduced depression (Babyak et al., 2000; Hassmen et al., 2000; Kritz-Silverstein et al., 2001). It is important to note that physical activity does not simply take away or minimize disease but enhances positive health within individuals. For example, many individuals experience an increase in positive affect and wellbeing after participating in activity. The ‘feel good factor’ or the ‘runner’s high’ is a common response as to why people exercise and these intense positive emotions can be experienced in acute and chronic forms. Linking to
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o you exercise? Why or why not? What happens when you start? What happens when you stop?Think about it…
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the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2001), PA enhances levels of positive affectivity, thereby enabling individuals to build psychological, social, intellectual and physical resources (Kobasa et al., 1985).
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cientific evidence for the benefits of exercise on mental health came from well-designed research studies by Blumenthal et al. (1999) and Babyak et al. (2000). Participants were randomly assigned into one of three groups:■ exercise (30 minutes aerobic classes three times per week);
■ medicine (Zoloft, SSRI antidepressant); and
■ exercise plus medicine.
After the 16-week intervention, results showed that all three groups improved. Furthermore, there were no significant differences among groups, except that the medication group recovered faster. However, it is the results at 10 months post intervention that really surprise us. In terms of relapse, 38 per cent of participants in the medication group had relapsed, as did 31 per cent of the participants in the combined medication and exercise group. However, only 9 per cent of the participants in the exercise group relapsed, making this an incredible finding for exercise research.
See the Blumenthal et al. (1999) and Babyak et al. (2000) studies for the original articles.
AEROBICS
Within clinical populations, we now know that actually, ‘rest is not best’! Research on cancer populations demonstrates that activity participation can induce a higher physical and psychological quality of life (Biddleet al., 2000; Courneya et al., 2000, 2002; Courneya, 2003; Campbell et al., 2005; Weert et al., 2005; Mutrie et al., 2007).
For HIV patients, PA participation can reduce HIV progression as well as enhance CD4 T-cell counts (Mustafa et al., 1999; Arey and Beal, 2002). Due to the horrible side effects of chemotherapy and HIV antiretroviral treatment, PA can help combat the alterations in body composition. Even participating in yoga, as opposed to moderate activity, can hold some advantages such as restoring somatic control and increasing efficacy and hope in people with physical illness.
And it’s not just the individual who benefits from activity engagement. Engaging in community-run PA groups can build a strong identity and sense of cohesiveness (Fox, 2000). Community PA programmes can also access individuals who are socially excluded such as the elderly or people with mental illness and enable them to engage with other people in similar situations, during a productive activity. Thus, activity participation, and the environment it creates, can facilitate the components of Ryff’s
model of psychological wellbeing (autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relationships, purpose in life, self-acceptance) (Ryff and Singer, 2006).9 Communities have also extreme economic interests in getting people off the couch and out of sedentary lifestyles. It is estimated that in 2002, physical inactivity cost the UK approximately £8.2bn. Today, that figure is much larger and is predicted to keep on rising (Weiler et al., 2010). Community-based interventions currently in place in the UK include access to parks, trails, and centres and cycling schemes such as cycle lanes and free bikes, promoting greener, healthier travel.
Arguably the most astonishing research in the past decade surrounds the discovery of PA’s positive influence on cognitive performance in both students and older adults (Boutcher, 2000). Research done in schools with structured daily physical education (PE) programmes has consistently reported reduced absenteeism, aggressive behaviour, disciplinary actions as well as increased academic achievement and improved in-class behaviour and attention (Ratey, 2008). Unfortunately, the demise of physical education has spread rapidly across the globe, with less than 3.8 per cent of students in the US receiving regular PE (Lee, 1995). The demise has been blamed on the increase in standardized testing, lack of budget for experienced teachers and the potential impact on academic performance. Ironically, education systems are ignoring the new neuroscientific research that shows that participation in activity stimulates learning abilities. Exercise itself doesn’t make you smarter, but it does better prepare your mind to attend to and absorb more of the information given. Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to morph and change with experiences. Cells can and do change and activity participation can help us ‘rewire’ our brains. Exercise elevates concentrations of serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine (Ratey, 2008). Furthermore, scientists believe that there is a certain protein, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) that causes the brain to develop (Ratey, 2008: 40). Exercise increases the amount of BDNF in the brain, thereby escalating the efficiency of learning and memory.
In sum, participation in physical activity can facilitate wellbeing within individuals and societies. Not only does it keep our bodies healthy but it keeps our mind fit and happy as well.
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ctivity is great for getting the brain going and growing. So at this point, put your book down, and go for a 10 minute light to moderate walk*, either outside or inside your house. There is no time like the present, and when you get back you will hopefully see an improvement in your ability to attend to new information (Ratey, 2008).*Please consult with your GP whenever you are about to engage in a new exercise routine.
Think about it…
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